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73 viewsModule 4 PDF
Uploaded by
Jalal JalalCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 53
ee Chapter >. age
toons = = S07ROD ¢
SO7891
Change in trea (ou)
oO 1 2 3 4s
é
Time (secs)
Figure 7.31 Response for Example 7-7 with dlfeent felch
It can be seen that we
difficult to implement
Thus by changing Qa
get almost a deadbeat respor
nse. However, the feedback gains
practically,
ind Rwe can control the system to obtain a satisfactory response
7.5 State Space Model for a Two-Area System
Consider the block diag
gram of a pwo-area system with AGC shown in Fig, 7.9. Let us 0
vector.
er se
40, AP, AP. AP.) AP, NG AP AP,» AP
Oem May AP ag Meg
‘The state vector isa9X 1 vector. From the
= 1
MY Bal) = as
+D, (AP) ~ AP, (9) ~ AP.)
block diagram, we can write the following
Dd, D (yaa ar. ts)
BAM Fran )=sh- anon oH,
Scanned with CamScanner System
sce ose fy TWO Ae -
cb (AP(O)
i Mi" Fes Ta
“l
1
aan Try, Mts) ' i ARG) (7,62)
1 7
aid MAO2 Ty iF (ll it Aa(s))
, i
sAP.,(3) + Bra eh ents be
K \V,.,U5) = Ne
Gey Ag = ~~ HAMAR (9) AM
Ala) =~ Ky BiAOa(s) ~ KAP.) 7.64)
(9 AP, = 2 (AE, (s)~ Aen,(5))
sAP,,(3)
(hens) - 80,0) (7.65)
where T), = = cos(6,,~5y,) and P,, =P,
12
As S00) = om = AP.) + AP.)
shas) = FHeae- ih a eW+ ae At) 68)
Avil) AP (8) = (AP(3))
SAP ald) = Tey Mleal+ FAR) aon
Ail) AP() = Fry he-Fa
bP) =~ PARAL + 7M) ~ FEE OW a
SPF BP d= Ke wsayn = AP.)
1APyg) =~ KBB) + Ky APA as
Equations (7.60) 40 (768) are te tae equations. We can express them in time domain inthe standard form
“The Equations (7 z
ills
(9 = AX) + Bult)
Scanned with CamScanner ‘Ao, )_[*]=
v= [Sa] [z
c form as follows,
fer function Kt for generator + load. We can transf
Some authors use the transfer fut lh
4
D
1
D
From which Ky =
and obtait
‘ stem a
ee Form the state matrices for the data of Example 7.2. Simulate thesys
ment 0
the response for an increase in load of arca 1 by 0.1 pu. Com!
obt:
: m5 wwadratic’
ed. Repeat if there is now a decrease in load of area 2 by 0.1 pu. Design a linear 4
for this system and comment on the results
Solution
The state matrix is formed as explained in the Previous section,
Scanned with CamScanner -vo-Area System
jl 02 =
0055 0 OO eo O4 . g
CS
Gard “$4 0 oo 8 8
eigen 0ST oo
| 0 00 0 2 gis °
AF) 0 OF OR 01 0.09 01 9 .
poo ge oe tS
0 0 0-53.33 9-3:
0 0 00 03 507 9 338
0900
090 5
0 0
0 0 100000
a=] 0 o lef ones oo [3 of
FY gO 1000 00
0 0
0 0
0 0
sq egnseisimulated sing che MATLAB command
| te
| bal
step (A, BPL, C, D,
1)
aati = BL and PL = [PL1; PL2}. PL1 and PL2 are the step change in the loads of the respective
1 eommands ate as used in case 4 of Example 7.6. Figure 7.32 shows the plot ofthe frequency
earmold ev areas for an increase of load in area 1 by 0.1 pu,
x03
2 x
—= Change inf
i === Change in f
ok /\ ~~
“Nye |
& N/V
g
&
é
°
5 10 18 20 25
Time (secs)
Fu :
™732 Frequency response of system for Example 7.8 for increase of load in area 1.
—
Scanned with CamScanner Chapter 7: AGC;
I Inter
mn
Chango in,
Change in pr!
a — orang
ose
ot
0.08
0.08
0.04
Change in power (pu)
10 15 20
Time (secs)
25
Figure 7.33 Change in powers for the system of Example 7.8 for incre of eng
itean be observed thatthe frequency deviations reach zero in about 20s
Figure 733 shows the pot ofthe APay AP. and AP. ‘We can see thatthe steady-state ibe iy
0.1 pt, This is obvious, because the mechanical power output of the turbine has to inca ing
Fei loadin area 1, However, the steady-state values of AP. and AP, ate zt, Figue 73d
plot ofthe change in the reference st points, Ay and AP
os
~ Change in Pr
|— change in P,
on
0.08
Change in
i
!
1
1
1
oa} |
1
i
1
oat!
i
1
0.02!
°
2 10 15 20 %
Time (secs)
Figure 7:
awe 734 Power reference se points for increas of loadin a!
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ph fora Two-Area System 2279,
Mode
oe
ot int of area 1 has steady-state value of 0.1 pu and the load set point of area 2
pacthe load set PO
we
ye
fincas equation are given by
fe
os
24983
A3255
1-9 3138 + 1.61064
93138 - 1.61061
19 3494 + 1.4688:
0.3494 - 1.4688:
0.2627 + 0.03081
0.2627 ~ 0.03081
0.3549
ag derotsareon the LHS of the plane indicating a stable system.
We next consider an increase of load of 0.1 pu in area 1 and a decrease of load of 0.1 pu in area 2.
Fite 7.35 shows the change in AP. AP. and AP,,. We observe that the steady-state value of AP. =
‘ps (co meet increase in load) and that of AP., = -0.1 pu (due to decrease in load). The steady-
tat alve of AP,, = 0, which means that after the initial transients,
there is no change in the tie-line
over low.
== Change in Pry
Change in Pg
‘Change in Pye
Change in power (Pu)
0 5 10 15 20
Time (secs)
25
Figure 7.35 Change in powers for increase of load in area 1 and decrease of load in area 2.
‘Wenow design an LQR for the system, Let us take the objective function to be
25) +0.015u; + 0.015445 }dt
®
Q= JG ++
a~
Scanned with CamScanner Chapter 7: AGC i
AGC in itr,
et
(all diagonal elements are 5)
We again ase the commands
iq (A,B QQ
Afe Ano" K
1=0:0.02:25
[yal =step (AF BPL CD. 1,9)
Plot (4, x (4 Ds 4 ¥ 66)
deviations of the two areas is shown in Fig. 7.36. We can observe th
reduced, the maximum frequency deviation (in comparison wig p=
almost negligible. wih
“The plor of the frequency
tions in frequency are drastically
is also reduced and the oscillations in area 2 are
xo
1
— Change inf
Change in
Change in freq (pu)
0 5 10 15, 20 5
Time (secs)
Figure 7.36 Response with compensator.
‘The K matrix is given by
157.2045 4.6351. 11.85
0.6588 0.1369 0.2 20 14,1508 -10,2209 26st th
9 02951-05711 120565, 191.9655 5559 12,0496
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gin forte 9 at The first row gives the feedback gain of area 1 for each
7 eb econ o's the gin forarea 2. The roots ofthe characteristic equation ofthe
Pe val
Payee.
(gg 11
sits
2 oe
e096
5185
se bar the 1008S h
ave shified away from the imaginary axis to the left, indicating improved
‘wo areas 1 and 2 are interconnected. The capacity of area 1 is 1,500MW and
yea 2 is SOOMW. The incremental regulation and damping torque coefficient
zon is on base are O.2pu and 0:9 pu, respectively Find the steady-state frequency and
ie est tiedine power, for an increase of GOMNW in area 1. The nominal frequency is
ai
aon
sncnver Rand D, to the base of area 1.
1300 - o.6pu
500 _
9% 59g = OSPH
Dea the une of R, is pu Hz/pu MW while that of D, is pu MW/pu Hz)
==
AR, = ($95 =0.04pu
AR 004-004
toe (al ae
, (Gro) (+03)
= 5.0847 x 10° pu
af
Ao
0847 x 10° x 50 = -0.2542 He
AP,
1
AR, B, _ -0.04x1.9667
B+B, ~ 59419
.01 pu
=-0.01 x 1500 =-15 MW
‘KR |
|
Scanned with CamScanner 0.6 pu
12.71175MW wt
— - a
SSRECEA GD! Example 7.9, what would be the effet oF nt having sovenge 2
Solution
In the absence of governor control R, = R, = 0. Then
B,=D, and B= D,
-0.4
2B = 755 93 = 0.033 pu
Af =~ 0.033 x 50 = 1.667 Ha
°
Notice thar frequency deviation has increased drastically.
_ -0.04 x 0.3
0.9 +03
AP, =~-0.01 pu=-15MW
The mechanical powers will not change if speed governor control is not there.
JAP, = AP. =0
7.6 Tie-Line Oscillations
: . + : ‘ area see
We saw in the previous section that the system state matrix is a 9 X 9 matrix for a wore
= a 7 . te
some simplification, we can get a fairly good idea of the effect of the system parametets on TS
rus make the following assumptions:
AG Neglect turbine and governor time constants,
ANeglect damping constants D, and D,.
Both areas are identical.
With these assumptions, the two area equations reduce to
Aa,(s)
AP (6) =
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6 spetine Onalaons =
i
AP (0) = tae 7)
Aay() = sHelAP,.(0) - AP, () APA) 72
veig for AP, (3)s we get
“
. ARs) - AR.)
sav=- aCe | (7.73)
sinilaly WEB
= AR, (5) + AR(s)
Acs) = Age) (7.74)
(an,0- AR,()-2.42,0)]
a [ARs AR (9)
o (AR) “ARO | (7.75)
3
The poles of the denominator determine the oscillations in AR,. We compare the denominator with ca
sandard second-order character
(7.76)
Wecan see that
7.7)
And _ [t 216.7
=\E poor \ Te rads (778)
‘Te damping is determined by the relative values of and @, and the roots of Eq, (7.75).
Toots of Eq, (7.75) are
7.79)
Where @= &u,
Br
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Chapter 7: AGC in Inter
284+ Sree Pers
S
z
and = 0, /1-F 0%
F ; - a, the natural undamped fequeney of
is called the damping factor or damping constant. ste naar wndeped equecy oscilla
iscalled the i rey and € is called the damping ratio. We now fave the cd
ase
Shen E=1 or @= @, This condition is called “critical damping.” ;
“AArihen & = 0 or a= 0, the roots are purely imaginary and we get purely sinusoidal oscil
a step change in input. In Eq, (7.79), the input is A?,.() — AP, (9). Therefore, for a step
ae ; i
the load, we would get sustained sinusoidal oscillations of tieline power at a Tegieagy ve
tions fo,
From Eq, (7-76), we can see chat @= 0 when R= =. This That ete ho gover pe
vase
control. ————
AWhen o< w, & <1, we ge pair of complex conjugate roots, The system is “under damped any
Fave oscillations ia tie-line power flo Tave a frequency @ 35 in Ea (7.79) Thetime conta
mis lia ~ ———
the system is 1/ce
When a> @,, we have an “over damped” system. The roots are both real.
‘The above analysis is only approximate, but is helpful in knowing the elec ofthe choice of praeey
on the stability of the system. If we consider the damping constants of the load, then a is modified a
[=-aood] | a
|
eG
FER Consider a two-area system in which R= 0.2, D = 0.8 and H = 3s, The te.
line has a capacity of 0.1 pu, The initial power angle 4; ~ di, = 30°, Fal
frequency of oscillations of the tie-ine power for a step change in load ifthe nominal frequen
is 50 Hz.
Solution
=0.1pu
nu 608 §= 0.1 X 0s 30° = 0.0866 pu
Lipedle
= [e+ 4]- Los + 1] =0.4838pu
o, iE pu=a, rad/s =3.01 als
Since 0 < 04
‘The damped frequency of oscillations is given by Eq, (7.79), = 0,
@, = 3.01 J1 — 0.16056? = 2.971 rad/s
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“Two control areas have the following data
‘Area I: .1 pu, D, = 0.8 pu, rated MVA = 1500
‘Area 2: Ry=0.098pu, D, = 0.9 pu, rated MVA = 500
bodies of 100MW occurs in area 1. Find the steady-state quency and elie power flow
L
APs inacase of 100MW occurs in both ares. Find the steady-state ioqueney and change in
‘elie.
jon
as vat and D; co the base of area 1.
ane Rand D:
= 0.098 x 1590 - 9.294
Ry = 0.098 x Ey = 0.294 pu
= 0.9 x 500. 93
D,= 0.9 x hy = 0.3pu
1 :
+D,= + +08=108
D, = yy + O8= 108
a
Steady-state frequency
= ~0.01702 x 1500 = -25.5MW
Webalance the changes as follows:
* Increase in load = 100 MW?
* Increase in generation of area 1 = AP.
6 x 107
Or
x 1500=69MW
a
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Chapter 7: AGC in Unterco,
= Pon,
Change oi
-5.52MW
* Change in load of area 2 due to change in frequency = A@D, pu
=-4.6 x 10° x 0.3 x 1504
Change in generation = 92.4MW
Change in load = 100 — 5.52 - 2.07 = 92.4MW
__ ~(AR, + AR;) _ - (0.0667 + 0.0667)
(6) af= Bt 10.8 + 3.701
f= 500.46 = 49.54 Ha
{Here the change in load of area 2 of 100 MW must be converted into base of 1,500 MAY.
since we have co use a common base when we use pu}
9.12 x10" pu
and e509
CAR, B+ AR A)
Ap,,= AR B+ AR. Al
° BB,
— 0.0667 x 3.701 + 0.0667 x 10.8} ,
10.84 3701 0.03265 pu = 48.98MW
Eaieee
‘Two control arcas of capacity 1,500MW and 10,000 MW are introns
through a tiedine. The parameters of cach atea on its own capaciy ate Re
ise of 200 MW in load of area 2. Deterite
1 power, :
1 Ha/pu MW and D= 0.02 pu MW/Hz. The
the steady-state frequency deviation and chang
Solution
We convert all parameters into a common base of 10,000 MW.
10,000
b= 1X Tag = 6.667 Ha/pu MW
9 12500. _ 7
02 x 99 = 0.008 pu MW/H2
+D,=0.153 pu MW/Hz
2 pu MW/Hz
=0.02pu
AR,
-0.02
0.153 + 1.02
Scanned with CamScanner Yr
Oscillations + 287
Line
be
jy equeney= 500.017 = 49.983 He
sre
2.6 x 10° pu = 26.08MW
‘Two generating areas have capacities of 500 and 1,000 MW, respectively. They are
interconnected by a short line. The percentage speed regulations from no-load to
falboed ofthe two stations re 3% and 4%, respectively. If the load on each station is 250MW, find
ihepover generation of each station and the tiene power.
solution
Total load = 500 MW.
= oo
R= 0.03 x <0 = 0.003 Ha/MW
= 50__ a
y= 0.04 x 725 = 0.002 Hu/MW
Py + Pea = 500MW
Af of
R= and R=
Fo Fea
oR Py = RP.
0,003 P,, = 0.002 (500 ~ P,,)
Pq, = 200MW
P,,.=300MW
Theres a flow of 300 — 250 = 50 MW from area 2 to area 1.
EEUIOREUI) Tvo arcas of equal capacity of 2,500 MW, speed regulation
H= 5sare connected by a tie-line of capacity 250 MW, operating at 45°. Find the
frequency of tie-line power oscillations.
Solution
250 5°=
pg Cos 45° = 0.0707
Scanned with CamScanner 288 + Chapter
fix 50 x 0.0707
a,= any, PESO O07 2.107 radls
@, > @& Hence, we have damped oscillations. The damped frequency is given by
y= Jo? — 0° = 2.107" -0.833" = 1.935 rad/s
fo= 0.308 Hz
Sin connec,
5
ey,
Ifthe speed governor is absent R—> ©». Then a= 0.
@,= 0, 2.107 rads
f,= 0.335 Hz
7.7 Related Issues in AGC Implementation
In the previous sctions, we have sen thatthe AGC operates constantly to balance generation and dy
I ed ; S
in the power stem, with minimum fequency deviation. We will see some issues teltd AGC se
mentation in this section. "
7.7.1 Response of Different Controls, Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition!
In.a modern power system, the AGC, SCADA, Security Control and load management ate the msjge
functions of the Energy Managem: Under normal operation, small frequency deviations cm
be controlled using primary governor control. For large frequency deviations, the secondary loop AGC
restores the frequency devia
restore the loz
Emergency control
H
1
1
rarer Primary, Supplementry
control control
Hl
10 20 30 40 50 60 7m
— Time (secs)
Figure 7.37 Response of different controls.
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ese sein AGC Implementation
at
7
+289
that responding to event 1, the primai ating daiks respond
Meet Frequency deviation due to the drop of the generating units Under thie cond
et different from the scheduled site Ti aaa contro <
ency suabilizes and will restore the frequency to the nominal value. In this case, after
jn frequency is not too high. Hence, the AGC has time to recover th
fier event 2, there is a quick drop in frequenc ssitating dl
the frequency.
veh
aor
etna
11.2 Participation Factor
given control are, all generating units need not be
eamounc of participation of generator unit in the
sng the generating units with AGC in
Earl na given coil ti, shesum of paripuiee fc teste
jasean be made dynamic and time varying in a competitive market
1 supple
oportion to their participation factors,
7.1.3 Generation Rate Constraints
c only at a specified
oper min in coal-ired generators, 40% per min for diesel plants, 20%
min for hydel units and 1—5% per min fo
‘op
RA he This i eal :
speration ito increase the appar dy 1! ‘on and hence reduce 6. The current IEEE
{anlard specifies a maximum dead band of 0.06% for a governor of large steam turbines” and 0.02% for
hydraulic uebines. ~
115 Filtering of ACE
Fetrandom variations in load cause chant
fans therefore, use a Alter to Aer out rand
Yue 7.38 tows the AGC control I
Communication delays are possible in receiving the telemetered tie-line flows, measured frequency and
A 3 eceiy a = ys
Qemunicating control signals to the generating units.
ACE. The system need not respond to these. AGC pro-
lom variations and use a smoothed ACE for control action,
116 Frequency of AGC Application
pala of units with AGC and their ability to react to chasing AGC is influenced by phase lags in the
28H quantities and in the transmission of its control signal. AGC execution once every 2451s
found
“SR ISATET good performance.
me
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|
| |
7 Chapter 7: NGC interconnect
— er
; in,
es z ont |
r)}—| a L— Lr
—G = BM -
al i
algoriten =
|, Filer [| geonomio [7 !
Ae dispatch
Telemotered | p
tie-line flows | ‘scheduled
Units on AGC
Figure 7.38 AGC control logic.
Summary
1. The main objectives of AGC are to hold sys-
tem frequency close to a nominal value and
main eine inerchanges at scheduled alucs.
+D,
2. Frequency bias factor of an area, 3, i
= ARs
3. Ae(pu) = Af (pu) = eh
7B
+ ANB,
where AP,,,, is net power out from cons
area i over tie-lines.
6. The poles of the system can be shifted lta
the «plane to improve performance,
7. A quadratic performance index can be mis
mized to improve system performance, ing 7
feedback of state variables. #
8. In the event of rapid drop in frequency, aad 5
shedding is resorted to.
9. AGC is executed once every 2-4 s. 5
y
Scanned with CamScanner Voltage and Reactive
Power Control
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
‘Afra careful study of the chapter, you would be able to understand:
+ Components which affect reactive power. ¥ OLTC
+ Relationship between voltage and reactive Y Booster transformers
power. ¥ Phase shifting transformers
+ Short-circuit capacity. + FACTS
* Sensitivity of voltage to changes in v svc
Pand Q ¥ STATCOM
* Cost saving through reactive power ¥ TCSC
compensation. vs
* Voltage control by reactive power ¥ UPFC
injection: + Voltage stability
Y Shunt capacitors. Y¥ PVeurves
¥ Series capacitors. Y V-Qeurves
¥ Synchronous condensers ¥ Voltage collapse proximity indicator
* Voltage control using transformers:
§1_ Introduction
bh Chapters 6 and 7, we have seen that the control of frequency of an isolated system or an integrated
Bem depends on the balance of real pow and demand. This balance, however,
‘sure the volta ae
< are maintained at the scheduled values. In Chapter 2, we have seen that the
Se ag mid a2 pc al Tale with auromatie volage regulators. Howeve, we need
Se MPport ac other buses inthe sytem too. This aspect is dele with inthis chapter. In any network,
Fong EI the sum of the various inductive and capacitive stored energies. To understand
aap, wt? of reactive power, Tet us consider a simple AC voltage source connected to a load as shown
BBL,
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ter: Vol
Se oe Hage and Re
Ho Beg
%
Load
ReJot
Figure 8.1 Source and load.
Lec {= Va sin@oe. Then, the currencis given by 49 = /, sin(# 9). The instantaneous
pd = 0) i) Pome
= V, sinar 1, sin(wr- 9)
= V,, J, sin@esin(@e— 9)
Vv, L,
‘ale (cose ~ cos(200#~ $)]
1,
= FGF cose — cose cos2ee— sing sind)
= Vicos9 [1 — coset] ~ VI sing sin2or
= instantaneous real power + instantaneous reactive pover my
The instantaneous real power has an average value
er has a maximum value VIsing.
We can see that the real power denotes supply of average power P from source to load. On theothrhal
an energy interchange takes place between source and load with average value zero, but maximum vied
Vi sing. This is called reactive po en unit VARs or Vars (volt~ampere reactive)
change of energy takes place at twice the supply frequency. A complex power S is defined as
S=P+jQ= VI" w
where Vand are voltage and current phasors (refer Appendix 1 for details).
The convention followed for reactive power is that reactive power absorbed by an inductors psivews
lence, we can consider the capacitor to generate reactive power Ina
that by a capacitor is nega
the net reactive power is the sum of reactive powers absorbed by various components with the cote
react sorbed st asada eal
56 and is denoted by P. The insane
tive
‘We can see thar d
8.2 Production and Absorption of Reactive Power
ler these.
Various elements in a network absorb or generate reactive power. Let us con
i i ication
ie reactive power depending on the scat
I voltage and ther
> R, then Qis determined by AV. In Fig, 8.66), let
Gand V, > V,. This means that there is low of active and re
Ginseetharl, the component of cur
ne at the pean oi
ive power from 1 to 2. Fr
vis determined by 6 The active a
current in quadrature wo V, depends mani =
now vary the generator excation such hat Voie
direction of active power flow can beemaldt
adjusting ihe pte move Inputs eam or
jing he pine overpass ore) and the diecton of reac poverfo ac
bya “— the excitation ofthe wwo generators. If R << X, these two operations ae independentofexhue
a Ka M
ect ky t. OF it Lm L360
oll, oe
Tyand hence on 6 Likewise, [, the component
Hence, Q depends on the voltage difference. [Fw
the direction of reactive power flow is
Me
ake di Me (b) Yy> Vy (Mic Ve
Sos oft
Figure 8.6 ‘Two generators interconnected.
Scanned with CamScanner af vageon Reactive Power ae
tos
nt i rr.demand. ‘i
“ can se that ifthe reactive power demand ata hus ie heavy. 4
1 yy 10 wee ofthe bus falls. On the other hand
Hence, the volta ae other hand, if reactive power is generated, the
will ise.
rat
of the FG chen there v
ake
os
| 8.17)
. sant, and hence AV constant
sjwe br, Vand V, const st
1 (8.18)
Theimplication of Eq, (8. 18) is as follows:
fveneed to hold V, constant with varying P, Q, as given by Eq, (8.18) must be supplied.
Rive amount of Q, cannot be supplied, then V, cannot be held constant.
iychanges by an amount AP,, then from Eq, (8.18)
(8.19)
From Eq, (8.19), it nin increase in Q,, proportional to ©. Thus,
ss obvious that an increas uses an incre x. The
devolage can be contfolled by injection of reactive power of correct
EEUINGEEI) Consider the transmission system shown in Fig. 8.7. The pu values are referred to
the respective voltage bases and 100 MVA base. Determine the power supplied by
the generator and its pf.
A p00 G yO pug
3 Ft a5.
Ot pu 0.15 pul 3 100 MW
Qe
upf
wr “60
0.1 pu & ots pu’ 3
220kV 0.04 pu} rg2ky O-1PU T1KYy
100 Mw
0.8 pf lag
Figure 8.7 Example 8.3.
T
1
Solution
The teactance from C— p= O15 +0.1
Rexsane ftom A~ C=
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i
Ac the receiving end,
P= 100MW= Ipt
Q=0 (up!)
Bia Oa et Omen
ve r Pp
“The reactive power loss from C— Eis PX
= 1x0.125 = 0.125 pu
‘At bus Cwe add the load powers and loss in line C— E. Since R= 0, there is no real power |
88. The
C= 140.75 pu. Therefore at C
P=1+1=2pu.
Q=0.75 + 0.125 = 0.875 pu
Loss in line A - Cis
E087 x0.07 = 0.333 pu
Qat A= 0.875 + 0.333 = 1.208 pu
“The generator must supply P= 2pu and Q= 1.208 pu. The generator pf= 0.856.
8.5 Sensitivity of Voltage to Changes in PandQ |
‘We have seen that the voltage Vata node is a function of P and Q.
V=fP Q)
_ WV pp 4
av= Sha + S5dQ
OP av _ 2Q av _
Weknow 2F 3% =1and 57 $=!
«va —aP_ , AQ
+ aV= spray * TQIeV a
If we consider the system of Fig. 8.4, we have
oe
and from Eq. (8.9)
(E-V)V- RP-XQ=0 e
Here, F's the sending end voltage and Vis the receiving end voltage. From Eq. (8.21)
ap _ E-2V 2
ov OR ie
and a %
av x
2 dV=— Ph _ eae
(E=2V)7R * (E=2V X
Scanned with CamScanner vole ro Changsin Pand Q eo
of
aP(R)+dQ(x)
| (E-2V)
| scant Vand AV,we have from Eq. (8.18)
tami
a
(23), we see thatthe smaller the reactance associated with node the larger the value of 3S
on Fam Eq, (8.20) smaller the voltage drop. When more lines ae incident ona node, the reactance
te eran hence voltage drop lesser. Wha isthe implication of this? Assume that a node inthe sys-
4 He
pasa voltage drop of 2 kV from no-load to full-load and the value of 3g at this node is 10 MVAr/kV.
tp maintain the node voltage at its no-load value, we need ro inject 10 x 2 = 20 MVAr. This means
(8.24)
ap (8.25)
hen
i my shighes more reactive power is needed atthe node to maintain a constant voltage.
that ify
shenesem son nolead, V= Then fom Eq, (8.23)
eg £ (8.26)
Eignnthing but the current when receiving end is shore circuited and resistance is neglected. Therefore, we
x
cansiy that the magnitude o( $3) is equal to short-circuit current, when V= E, Under normal operating
conditions, Vis close to £. Hence, Eq. (8.26) is useful as a thumb rule to know the reactive power require-
ment at a node, since the short-circuit current is normally known at various buses.
PERO) Three generating stations are connected to a common bus bar X, as shown in Fig, 8.8.
Fora particular system load, the line voltage at the bus bar falls by 2 kV, Calculate
the reactive power injection required to bring back the voltage to the original value. All pu values are
ona 500MVA base.
275 kV 132 kV
[502
J0.1 pu
a
B275kV
Figure 8.8 Example 8.4.
Solution
The .
base value of Zin the 132 kV circuit is
kV? _ 132°
MIVA = 500 ~ 348489
Scanned with CamScanner = 50.
= 5pg = M348 pu
‘The single-phase equivalent circuit is shown in Fig, 8.9.
The line reactances are Z
1.0 pul
Figure 8.9. Single-phase equivalent of Example 8,4,
The reactance from X to Nis given by
1 1 1
a 1
X,, 15348 * 13348 * 74348
Xq
The short-circuit currene= ~2- =
ot
500 x 10°
Base current /,= 20010" =
V3 x132x10°
1,=2 2187 = 4373A
When three-phase Qis used, and Vis the line-to-line voltage then
22
av |
=|v30,| =7574.2VarlV
=7.574MVATKV
For a voltage drop of 2kV, the reactive power to be injected is 7.579 X 2 = 15.148 MVAr (thre: it
8.6 Cost Saving
et
From the discussions in the previous sections, we have seen that reactive power contol can #3
. ifyes he
voltage. But installation of reactive power equipment requires investment, Ist justified and ify
Consider a simple two-part tariff given by
T=xx kVA+yx kWh Rs
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volage Conurl
charge for KVA andy for the kWh. Let us draw an active power P,, at a power factor cos
e R
a a. ifnow the power factor is improved to corp, the new kVA is =>. The saving in cost
p_2_\ -the active power required to change the power factor is |
fen
cron -B an A) KVL
afinsallation is Rs CIRVAs, then roral cost of installation i
fines tan 6). Hence the net saving is given by
cr ten
1___1_|_cp tang,
swing =x 8 Sosa, ay] CA cand —tangs) Rs.
asim sing is obtained when
(8.27)
we observe that the optimum power factor does nor depend on the inital power facror!!
from Eq. 6.27)» Pn
+ factor is not unity, from a cost perspective,
futhes the optimum powe
87 Methods of Voltage Control by Reactive Power Injection
Tieconventional means of reactive power injection are:
1, Shunt capacitors/reactors.
2, Series capacitors.
3, Synchronous condensers.
‘These are discussed in this section.
87.1 Shunt Reactors
Shun rectors and capacitors are either permanently connected to the transmission and distribution system
atthe are switched. Shunt reactors are used to compensate the effect of line capacitance, especially to limit
"olage rise on light loads
Asume a simple system with an EHV line shown in Fig. 8.10(@) and the phasor diagram in Fig. 8.10(b).
fen &
Ve Va
(a) System (©) Phasor diagram
Figure 8.10 EHV line connected to a source.
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With th 1d open, capacitive line-charging current / Se
ith the receiving end open, cap ging ich leads yy ek
causesa drop /,X, in the line and the phasor sum of Vq and LX, gives V, We see that V, (8% So
rise at the receiving end will also be present when an EHV line is supplied from a weak fous” Tit
reactance and low short-circuit capacity) and is called the Ferranti effect. To compensate for mh me
el
shunt reactors have to be connected, Shunt reactors in EHV lines are connected as follows:
1. A shunt reactor of sufficient size must be permanently connected to limit fundamental
rary overvoltages to about 1.5 pu for less than I s. These reactors are also useful in limi te,
due to switching transients. "BEG
2. Switched reactors are connected to the EHV bus to maintain normal voltage under no
conditions.
Toad
The connections are shown in Fig. 8.11(a).
Shorter lines supplied from strong systems do not need permanent reactors. Only switchab
le
used. Tapped shunt reactors are also used as shown in Fig, 8.11(b). TCO ae
8.7.2 Shunt Capacitors
Shune capacitors supply reactive power ata bus and are used with lagging loads. They boost local vol
are used extensively throughout the system in a wide range of ratings and sies. Their main advange ne
cost and flexibility. The reactive power output is proportional to the square of voltage which isa diadran
Shunt capacitors are also extensively used in distribution feeders for power factor improvemen
feeder voltage control. Connecting a capacitor at the load end compensates for the lagging cum
Jo
Weak Sirong
system system
A: Permanent
Ry
Ay, Re: Switched
ga, Fe
Figure 8.11 EHV reactors.
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tage
ot af
we
ye
Plant level
-
1 ngividuat
level
AFR
HeH
~
2
Figure 8.12 Power factor correction.
wy head, has improving the reccving endl bus power acto. In a ypc industrial plan, the
are nection is done at different levels ~ plant, individual drives, group of drives ~ as shown
“ire ‘ocompensae for PX losses in transmission lines, capacitor banks of appropriate sizes ate con-
sada HV bus or etary winding ofthe main transformers. They ate switched capacitors and provide a
Simple method of controlling transmission system voltages. The size of the capacitor is decided by perform-
teed lead flow analysis. The volage rating ofthe shunt capacioris normally slightly higher than the
buvlage.
81.3. Series Capacitors
Sct capacitor are connected in series with line conductors to compensate the inductive reactance of the
line The power transfer from a bus of voltage V, to another bus of voltage V,, connected through a line of
racance Xi given by
(8.28)
A Seis capacitor would partially compensate for X;, and thus increase maximum power that can be
aid, reducing the effective eactive power loss.
1s of series capacitor ares
1 tite wage drop
Wot depenen vege drop.
‘MSE poe flow in paral ines,
rss
, rages Power transfer capability.
6 Ines veer, ‘tansfer, reduces transmission angle.
stem stability
lin wi
ith the series ‘capacitor and the corresponding phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 8.13.
be
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)
Figure 8.13 Line with series capacitor.
Series capacitors te subject to high overvolages produced when ashor-iteue current fasta
capacitor. The capacitor is protected using spark gaps and non-linear resistors across, as shown ing gi¢
Since series capacitors operate at line potential, they must be insulated from the ground, Seme cones
tions in applications of series capacitors are:
1. Rise in voltage on one sie of capacitor due to line reactive ~ current, during power svings okay
power transfers. Ths may cause damaging stress on equipment on the side experiencing high vag
implying higher rating for them.
2. Incase of shor circuits inthe line, the voltage across the capacitor will tend to be much higher than thre
ral voltage across it. Hence, its not economical ro design the capacitor for this rating, Therefore theca
tors bypassed during a fault and re-inserted after clearing of fault. Provision should be made for the ly.
The commonly used schemes for protection and bypassing are shown in Fig. 8.14.
3. Location of series capacitor bank is influenced by cost, accessibility, fault level, relaying, voltage ple
and power transfer levels. Mid-point of the transmission line is preferred when compensation isks
than 50%, But this location is not convenient in terms of access for monitoring and mates
¢ C - Capacitor bank c - Capacitor bank
D- Damping circuit D Damping cet
D Gy - Spark gap, high-set R-Nonsinear resistor
a Ga- Spark gp, owset G -Spark gop
S, - By pass breaker 'S -By pass switch
«| Si+Reinfertion breaker 6
o |L—.%-__]
B
@ OO)
Figure 8.14 Series capacitor protection schemes.
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pesaon canbe splicand located at che rwo ends ofthe
mf
is make
entpough the rating required is higher. mimbre accesible for
ance
thee!
sate eres capacitor compensation lead to a phenomenon called subsaynchronous resonance
ere ses capacitor forms a resonant circuit with the inductance of the transmission line avs ha,
GSR ow the power system frequency for the normal compensation range of 20-70% Inthe eng
ed aie caters of subharmonic frequency ar excited and superimposed overpower fequeney
dade subharmonic frequency currents are generally damped by the resistance of the It
ed loads. However, if the sub-harmonie fequency coincides with the natural frequency of the
ie chanical system of a nearby steam turbine unit, it may lead to a buildup of torsional oscillations,
sean occur ether spontaneously or after a disturbance. This phenomenon is called SSR" and hey
ei ihecause of major turbine shaft failure. Measures are available to counteract SSR",
‘recomparizon of setcscapacicors with shunc capacitors can be made as follows:
¢
feline vlage drop limiting Fars, series capacitors are useful
4, They ate effective in smoothening out voltage fluctuations due to arc furnaces, welding equipments, etc.
4 se apactorsare no useful i Var requirement is smal. /
4 ifthemal considerations are a limitation tothe line current, shunt capacitors should be used,
§ iftbeline eacance is high series capacitors should be used to improve the stability.
3.7.4 Synchronous Condensers (Synchronous Phase Modifiers)
A qnchonous condenser is a synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a mechanical load.
Wecan sy that i isa synchronous motor running on no-load. When connected at a bus, it can control the
tus volage by absorbing or generating reactive power. Ifa load is connected at the bus and draws lagging
arent, the synchronous condenser can be made to compensate the lagging current by drawing a leading
curent, thus improving the power factor. The power factor of the synchronous condenser can be varied by
vaying the excitation. A plot of the power factor versus field current for a synchronous motor is shown in
Fig 8.15. Jp isthe field current at which the power factor is u
From Fig. 8.15, we see that for J,< Jjy (under excitation) the synchronous motor draws lagging currents
and for > Ipy (over excitation) it draws leading currents, With a voltage regulator, the excitation can be
automatically adjusted to change the reactive power and thus maintain the bus voltage constant. Since,
itison no-load, the real power drawn is only to meet the losses. They do not produce excessive voltage
‘eels and are not susceptible to electrical resonance. They provide a good alternative to shunt capacitors.
Smnchtonous condensers are also called synchronous compensators ot synchronous capacitors. An added advan
Se Bthat being rotating machine, its stored energy is useful ride chrough transient disturbances like
Wwhage sags
upf
“
Lagging pf ! Leading pf
fo —- 4
Figure 8.15 Power factor V; J; for a synchronous motor.
Scanned with CamScanner 7 Chapter 8: Vohage and Rex,
tive,
8.7.5 Voltage Control and Power Factor Correction
‘The principle of pover factor correction isto compensate fr the reactive power drawn
Ioaly connecting 2 compensating device fwe havea load of admittance, 6,8, then heh
by the load is given by ten ge
1=V(G,+i8)
“The compensator current /.is made equal ro ~jVB,so thac the load current with compensy
on
Neh th=VG,
which is phase with the voltage, making the pf equal to unity and the total reactive power dram,
equal to zero. Now from Eq, (8.7) we can obtain a solution for Qo make |V| = |E]. This value abi
total reactive power at the load bus. IF Q, is the load reactive power, then the reactive power ofthe eng ®
tor Q = Q- Q, From the above discussion we note the following: cone
1. A compensator can be used to bring the pf to unity.
2. A purely reactive compensator can eliminate supply voltage variations.
3, If we design a compensator such that Q brings the pf to unity, then the total reactive power atl
becomes zero. Then, from Eq. (8.8) we get ed by
RP
AV,= AP and
= XP
av,=%
- [a eav? \
avs fav? + Av; 1
This means that a purely reactive compensator cannot maintain both constant voltage and unity poue fay :
at the same time. ;
8.8 Voltage Control Using Transformers
With their flexibility, ransformers provide an effective way to control voltage. The various methods ie
discussed in this section.
8.8.1 Tap Changing Transformers
Tap changing transformers provide a means of voltage control by changing the turns ratio. Tap chard
usually done on the HV winding for two reasons: :
in the HV winding, the leads, contacts, etc., can be smaller.
1. Since the current is lowe
2, Normally, the HV winding is wound outside the LY winding, So, itis easy to bring out the taps Fact
shows an off-load tap changer. \
*
This requires the disconnection ofthe transformer ifthe tap has tobe changed: On th nee ,
can have on-load tap changing (OLTC) transformers, where the tap can be changed on
transformer is shown in Fig, 8.17.
‘The position shown is the maximum voltage position. The selector switches
tion on the transformer winding and are not used to make or break the load current. T
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loge
HV oe wv
oo
o—__]
Figure 8.
16 Off-load tap changer,
Si S2:Selector switches
Tot» Tea: Transfer switch
VS: Vaccum switch
A: Center tapped reactor
Figure 8.17 OLTC transformer,
tapped reactor. It is used to increase the impedance of the selector circuit and lis
current when there is a voltage difference across the two ends. The load current should not be interrupted
dung a tap change. The vacuum switch acts like a circu breaker, to make or break the load current, if
‘eied, during a tap change. The sequence of operations to change the tap is as follows:
1. Lett position be as shown in Fig. 8.17. In this position,
halves of the reactor, resulting in zero-resultant flux.
2. To change tap, TS, transfer switch is opened so that the total curr
3, Selector switch S, then move to next tap (2) and TS, closed.
& Because of diference in volage between S, and S,, a czculatng current flows in the reactor,
posed on the load current.
5 TS,now opens and S, moves to next tap (2) and TS, closes. Operation is complete,
mit the amount of circulating
the load current is equally divided into the two
‘ent flows through one half of the reactor.
superim-
Thus, six switch operations are needed for one change in tap position. The voltage change between taps
{Lxound 1% to 1.25% of the nominal voltage to avoid large disturbances at the load ends, For vighees regu:
lion of transmission voltage" itis necessary to use line drop compensator (LDC), whieh lene for the
tage drop along the feeder tothe load point so that the OLTC ses the actual load voltage and corrects for
hae’ Compensation is achieved by injecting a current proportional to the load current, detived from a cT,
‘hough an impedance Z. which models the network, impedance. The voltage drop across Z, is combined
"it the voltage which is controlled to obtain the actual load voltage. The LDC is shown in Fig, 8.18.
< DETC operation is mechanized and a motor is used to control the switching operations, A typical
TC has around 18 steps from +2 to 16%.
[DE-895 may be provided on transformers at both ends ofthe line, as shown in Fig, 8.19(a).
!nFg.8.19(a), «and t ate the off nominal tap ratios on the sending end and receiving end transformers,
"Spectvely, where tis the: tap ratio/nominal ratio. For example, if the nominal voltage is 132 KV and the tap
Rie
Scanned with CamScanner Chapter 8: Voltage and Re
Nn
Ml Resetigp,
IE,
win,
4
we
Vv,
9 sf]
toc
{éc)
and V, ae the nominal voFOge: then V.= BV, and
sF BY and yx,
fy
the line drop. The ty f i
rt product is made
formers and the order of the vol led
1B level tena,
21362
1 136 KV = 732 1.0303. FY,
“The ap positions and fa adjusted (0
a at we ae mina BE of aps
the same.
Let us now trans
compensate f0F
pesitio
van both ea!
fer all quantiies 10 the soa circuits The line impedance R + j
RIX nd the inpuc voltage t0 load ig Vb. The equi + AF hen eat
ia he equivalent circuit is shoons,
to load circuit becomes 3"
Fig. 8:19(0). The arithmetic otage drop is absained from Fig. 8.19(b) as
Vi,
above equation becomes
Ifwelees4,= I> then the
Av=enY, V,- V3 = (RP+XQ) fa t
. Ly
Fat i
Figure 8.19 Sit
19 Single-phase eq
igle-phase equivalent of a line with two tap changing eransforme®*
Scanned with CamScanner rere El
e +315
pealy V, and fy we get a quadratic equation in Vyas
Vea VV, + (RP +XQ) 2 =0
yoles fr V fom Eq, (8.30), Similan if V, and V,
psi Fm Bg (8.30) Hata changing transform with ri
prec vo buss ad the ectance is X, hen the Var
pe
we
8 ites
“nn
(6.30)
are specified we can get the off
o£: 1 (Sending end to receiving
flow is given by
ert-@e
Qa rl oe x09 5, (831)
is postive and the Var flow is fom the sending end into che receiving end. If > 1, Qy is
ie Betis of VB suitable ap agustmen, an appropriate injeion of Qis obiined
.
A ILKY generator supplies a load of 100 MW at 0.92 lag. It is connected to the
load through a 11/132 kV transformer, a transmission line at 132 kV with an
sce of 20 + j60 2, and a step-down transformer of 11/132 kV. Both the transformers are
pe with taps 50 that ff, = 1. Determine the tap settings if we need to maintain the receiving
aotage at 11 RY:
‘lution
ruses a base of 11 KV, 100MVA on the generator
V,=V,= 11 kV= 1 pu
Load = 100 MW at 0.92 lag
= 100 + j42.6MVA
=14)0.426pu
Z= oe =174.24Q
Z,= 20+ j60 Q = 0.1148 + 70.3444 pu
Subsitutin into Eq. (8.30)
P= x 1x1 + (0.1148 x 1 + 0.426 x 0.3444) £7 = 0
1-2 +0.2615 7 =0
1.16
te
4=4=0.86
8
A Booster Transformers
tims, it may
line
he ths
rteaqtit athe ends. In such cases, a separate transformer is used to boost or buck the voltage ofthe
adr pe eis done by injecting a voltage in series withthe ine, through a transformer. The main
‘ot have taps. Figure 8.20 shows some possible arrangements for the booster transformer.
be necessary or desirable to increase or decrease the voltage at an intermediate point in a
he
Scanned with CamScanner Chapter 8: Voltage ang
316 Reg
Booster
Regulating
transformer
\
Mai
transformer
in
—
(a)
——
Reverser
Tertiary wag
Ry, Ro Relays
FR, inserted to boost
©
Figure 8.20 Booster transforn
+ configuration.
8.20(a), the booster primary is fed from a regulating transformer and in Fig. 820() fone
tertiary winding of the main transformer. The reverse switch reverses the polarity ofthe injeced wage!
hence a boost is converted into a buck. The power rating of the buck or boost transformer ison sse2
fraction of that of the main transformer, as it handles only the power associated with the injeced was
The winding should not be open circuited as this would saturate the core. Buck or boos wast
offer an economical solution to the adjustment of line voltages that are slightly above or below the
value. They are also used in distribution feeders.
8.8.3 Phase Shifting Transformers &
aie
Phase shifting transformers are used when there is a need to control the active power So ya!
know that the active and reactive power flow over a line connected berween buses with vole
are given by
VV,
Pas Pain ~8.)
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Figure 8.21 Single phase of a phase shifting transformer.
i
: {es (5-6)- E
2 yy
ix 3 for derivations).
“i ai
pe Prantl te ative power flow, by control of voltage, the reactive power also changes signifi
a ase hifingeansformen alr dhe active power flow by changing the electrical angle & A simple
hile is shown in Fig. 8.21. :
a ge ied ners wit ine voltage as shown, Sina injections are made in the oer evo
Wee J Taps can be provided ro obtain varying phase shifts, Different types of phase shifing wans-
pe eaable. A deailed teatment is beyond the scope of this bo
AAAOV 3 — 6 distribution feed:
‘A capacitor rating 45KVAr is co
| () Pfand reactive load before compensation.
(i) pfafter compensation.
a load of 75 kW drawing a current of 130 A.
across the load. Determine the
Sation
{Before compensation,
oso = = 0.75
Wav, V3 *440%130
Q=Prang = 64.73KVAr
fi) Q=45kVAr
Toul Q= Q = Q.=19.73kVAr
f= -119.73 7 lag
™ of coffin 323] 0.967 lag
‘improved from 0.757 to 0.967.
G2 A3~6 1OKW induction motor has 2 pf of 0.85 lag. Determine the size of the
‘capacitor to raise the pf ro 0.97.
Scanned with CamScanner XY
Chapter 8: Voltage and Rex ‘
ine
318 *
ied is given by
Solution ive power spl
‘When pfis increased
Qe Mang
= 10 (0.6197 - 025
23,691 VAT
the reac
= tangs)
06)
691
pactoriphase= 5 1.23KVAr
e KW at 0.8pF
‘A41SV, 50Hz 3- @ SYS delivers 50 pf lag. Shunt oa.
AD Sed o ise the pf co 0.92. Desermine the value of capacitor needy 8
Solution
“The value of the capacit
The reactive power supPl
Q=Plang,— and)
= 500 (0.75 - 0.426)
= 162kVAr
Qelphase = 54KVAr
cor depends on the connection, st OF delta.
Ted by the capacior bank is given by
Star Connection
= 50010" _ = 869.54
“Bx A153 x08
1,= 869.5 x 0.8 = 695.6 A.
same, the ative component ofthe current remains the same. Thess
h |
|
‘Active component,
Since ative power remains the
component is given by
eee
Ising =
ty
6 (PHIQ\ P= jQ)_P+Q
elev ve
Pag
“The real power loss, Py = R= = R
ty,
P+Q
“The reactive power los, Qua = X= TX
by,
‘To minimize the losses, therefore, we have to minimize che reactive power transfer and ke
Further, the temporary overvltage when an energized line is opened, is also determined fi,
by
power transfer. Reactive power transfer during high rel power transfer requires a significan te
ent. The size ofthe transformers and cables also increase with increase in reactive power tranfy Be
reasons, itis necessary to generate reactive power close to the point of consumption to imprgs
regulation, rather than import reactive power from the generator. tha,
8.10.1 Definition of Voltage Stability"!
“A power sytem is small-dturbance stable at a gven operating point, if following any smal diag
voltage near loads are identical or close to pre-disturbance values.” “A power system ata given opr
state and subject toa given disturbance undergoes voltage collapse if post disturbance equilibrium
are below acceptable limit.” Voltage instability isthe absence of voltage stability. The instabilyspar,
an aperiodic decrease in voltage.
8.10.2 Mechanism Causing Voltage Instability
Voltage instability can be classified into transient stability and long term stability.
1, Transient voltage stability has a time frame of 0-10 s. During short circuits, when the wk
age dip is severe, the reactive power demand of induction motor increases, contributing to wag
collapse.
2. Voltage collapses can occur during islanding, if the imbalance in the island is more than St
Voltage decays faster than frequency; thus under frequency relays may fail to operate to pet
load-shedding.
3. Integration of HVDC links into weak power systems can cause transient voltage stability problems
4, Long-term voltage stability problems, typically extending over 2-3 min, involve high loads bi
Power import from remote generators and severe disturbances. The loss of generators ot «as
sion lines causes high reactive power losses and voltages sags. OLTCs change taps 0 rs" MS
which causes further dip in voltages. This leads to nearby generators becoming over-exied ¥
they hie ceiling voltages. Then, reactive power has to be provided by remote generators which
ficient and ineffective. At this point, the generation and transmission system can no Tonge!
EEE
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vive oes and ap vole decay occurs, which may ead to paral or vot volage
sal
| lid build up (MW/min) can cause voltage instability,
ability is predominantly concerned with load areas and characteristics. Hence, it is basi-
ages
s
sus ge abiliy while che rotor angle stability isa problem of generator stability.
| gare
3 Parameters to Indicate Voltage Strength
sent ofa ystem can be gauged from che values of certain parameters
30s
senleet :
ieuiteapacity ae ;
0 oe ict capacity is the shor-circuit MVA, given by
™ S,MVA=V3 Vil.
ee isin kA and Vy sn KV.
np S,= VX tps xe
isthe system Thevenin’s impedance. The assumption here is that the voltage is close to 1 pu. The
shot ircuit capacity is a measure of the voltage strength. A high capacity means the network is stiff or,
jn other words, changes in load will not significantly change the voltage magnitude.
(i) Short-creuit ratio of generators
The SCR of a generator is defined as
Field current to produce rated voltage on open circuit
Field current to produce rated current on short circuit
pale
x,
‘aipe)
SCR=
Allow reactance is preferred for good voltage regulation (Eq, 8.8) and steady-state stability (Refer
Aspendix 2), However, it increases the short-circuit current. The reactance is normally around
08-1.45 pu. The SCR is indicative of the change required in excitation for a given change in load
to maintain the terminal voltage of the generator a constant. A higher SCR is preferred for voltage
seabiiy.
i) Short. cireuit ratio of equipment
tis the ratio of the short-circuit capacity to the rating of the device. For example, a 1,000MVAr
compensation has a SCR of 5 in a system whose S, = 5,000MVA. A high SCR means good
performance.
(m) Hetoe short-circuit ratio (ESCR)
takes: ‘into account the shunt reactive equipment also at the location of the equipment. A synchronous
Condenser increases the fault current and hence short-circuit capacity.
Voltage regulation
The voltage regulation can be obtained with the help of the following two equations:
7]
Scanned with CamScanner aes Chapter 8: Voltage and React, j
8.10.4 P-V Curves and Voltage Collapse Cg |
Consider the radial system shown in Fig. 8.35. ait _
A resistive load (upf) is considered. The various relationships (which can be easily derived)
Unde:
condition are i
‘The curves are plotted as shown in Fig. 8.36.
"The voltage at maximum powers called the ertcal voltage. Nows let us determine the maximur poe
the voltage at maximum power Letall variables be normalized based on short-circuit power = £ asflom
x, Q
pe a=
vio SA
toad
ele
Figure 8.35 Radial system.
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