Chapter One

Signals and Spectra

A signal represents some information. While signals may be electrical, mechanical,
or of any other form, they are usually converted to electrical form for processing
convenience. A speech signal is converted from a pressure signal to an electrical
signal in a microphone. Signals, in almost all practical systems, have arbitrary
amplitude profile. These signals must be represented in terms of simple and well-
defined mathematical signals for ease of representation and processing. In the next
section, signals are classified according to some properties.

Classification of Signals
Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or more independent
variables. Signals are classified into different types and, the representation and
processing of a signal depends on its type.
Continuous- time and discrete-time signals
In the case of continuous-time signals the independent variable is continuous, and
thus these signals are defined for a continuum of values of the independent variable.
On the other hand, discrete-time signals are defined only at discrete times, and
consequently, for these signals, the independent variable takes on only a discrete set
of values.

Graphical representations of (a) continuous-time and (b) discrete-time signals.

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Chapter One

Analog and Digital Signals

Because a signal varies over time, it’s helpful to plot it on a graph where time is
plotted on the horizontal, x-axis, and voltage on the vertical, y-axis. Looking at a
graph of a signal is usually the easiest way to identify if it’s analog or digital; a time-
versus-voltage graph of an analog signal should be smooth and continuous.

While these signals may be limited to a range of maximum and minimum values,
there are still an infinite number of possible values within that range. For example, the
analog voltage coming out of your wall socket might be clamped between -120V and
+120V, but, as you increase the resolution more and more, you discover an infinite
number of values that the signal can actually be (like 64.4V, 64.42V, 64.424V, and
infinite, increasingly precise values).
Digital signals must have a finite set of possible values. The number of values in the
set can be anywhere between two and a-very-large-number-that’s-not-infinity. Most
commonly digital signals will be one of two values – like either 0V or 5V. Timing
graphs of these signals look like square waves.

That’s the big difference between analog and digital waves. Analog waves are smooth
and continuous, digital waves are stepping, square, and discrete.

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Chapter One

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

A signal which repeats itself after a specific interval of time is called periodic signal.
A signal which does not repeat itself after a specific interval of time is called
aperiodic signal. A signals that repeats its pattern over a period is called periodic
signal, while signal that does not repeats its pattern over a period is called aperiodic
signal or non periodic. Both the Analog and Digital can be periodic or aperiodic.

A signal is periodic if x(t) = x(t + T0), where T0, the period, is the largest value
satisfying the equality. If a signal isn’t periodic, it’s aperiodic.

Part (a) of the following figure shows a periodic signal known as a periodic pulse

train because it has an infinite train of pulses. Each pulse has width 'τ' and the ellipsis

indicate that the pulse train continues in both directions. In part (b), a waveform with
a single isolated pulse or just a few pulses makes the signal aperiodic.

- By definition, a periodic signal x(t) will be unchanged when it time shifted by

To, for this reason a periodic signal must start from t=-∞ and continue for t=∞
- A periodic signal could be generated by periodic extension of any segment of
x(t) with duration To (Period time)
- Additional property of a periodic signal x(t) of period time To is that the area
under x(t) over any interval of duration To is the same for any real number a
and b

∫ ( ) = ∫ ( )

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Chapter One

And will be denoted by

∫ ( )

Deterministic and Random Signals

A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at

any instant of time. Or, signals which can be defined exactly by a mathematical
formula are known as deterministic signals. A signal is said to be non-deterministic if
there is uncertainty with respect to its value at some instant of time. Non-deterministic
signals are random in nature hence they are called random signals. Random signals
cannot be described by a mathematical equation. These signals are known in term of
probabilistic description such as mean value or mean square value.

Deterministic Signal Random Signal

Even and Odd Signals

A signal x(n) is even-symmetric, if x(−n) = x(n) for all n. The signal is symmetrical
about the vertical axis at the origin. The cosine waveform is an example of an even-
symmetric signal. A signal x(n) is odd-symmetric, if x(−n) = −x(n) for all n. The
signal is asymmetrical about the vertical axis at the origin. For an odd-symmetric
signal, x(0) = 0. The sine waveform is an example of an odd-symmetric signal.

Energy and Power Signal

The terms signal energy and signal power are used to characterize a signal. They are
not actually measures of energy and power. The definition of signal energy and
power refers to any signal x(t) , including signals that take on complex values.

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Chapter One

The signal energy in the signal x(t) is

If 0 < E < ∞ , then the signal x(t) is called an energy signal. However, there are
signals where this condition is not satisfied. For such signals we consider the power.
If 0 < P < ∞ then the signal is called a power signal. Note that the power for an
energy signal is zero (P=0) and that the energy for a power signal is infinite (E=∞).
Some signals are neither energy nor power signals.
A necessary condition for energy signal is to be a finite which means x(t)→0 as
|t|→∞, otherwise the integral will not converge.
When the amplitude of x(t) does not →0 as |t|→∞, the signal energy is infinite. In this
case, a more meaningful measure would be the time average of the energy, if it is
existing, this measure is called power of the signal.
The signal power in the signal x(t) is

Observe that the signal power 'P' is the time average (mean) of the amplitude squared
that is , the mean squared value of x(t). indeed, the squared root of 'P' is the familiar
'rms' (root mean square) of x(t).
When x(t) is periodic, x2(t) is also periodic. Hence, the power of x(t) can be computed
by averaging x2(t) over one period. Then, the power will be equal to

Example:

Determine the suitable measures of the signal size "energy or power" in the figure
shown below.
x(t)
2
/
2

2- -1 t

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Chapter One

Solution

As shown in the figure, the signal amplitude →0 as |t|→∞, therefore, the suitable
measure for this signal is its energy Ex given by:

= ( ) = 0 + 2 + 2

= 4 + 4 = 4 − 4[ − ]=4+4 =8

Example

Determine the suitable measures of the signal size "energy or power" in the figure
shown below.
x(t)

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 t

Solution

The signal amplitude does not →0 as |t|→∞. However, it is periodic, therefore, the
power exists.

x(t) = 2.5t

1 1 1 6.25 6.25
= (2.5 ) = 6.25 = [ ] = [8 − (−8)] = 8.33
4 4 4 3 12

Example

Show that the energies of the signals in Figures a, b, c, d are 4, 1, 4/3 and 4/3
respectively. Observe that doubling a signal quadruples the energy, and time shifting
the signal has no effect on the energy. Show also that the power of the signal in Figure
e is 0.4323.

x(t) x(t) x(t)

2
2
1
t t t
1
(a) 1 1
(b) (c)

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Chapter One

x(t) x(t)

t t
1- -1 1 2

(d) (e)

Solution

(a) =∫ 2 = 4[ ] = 4[1 − 0] = 4
(b) =∫ 1 = 1[ ] = 1[1 − 0] = 1
(c) = ∫ (2 ) = 4[ ] = [1 − 0] =

(d) = ∫ (2 + 2) = ∫ (4 + 8 + 4) =[ + +4 ] = − +
4=

(e) =∫ ( ) = ∫ =[ ] = − = −0.0677 + 0.5 =

0.4323

Signal Operation
Time Shifting

A signal x(t) is time shifted by T second by replacing t by t + T . The value of x(t) at t

= to occurs at t = to − T in x(t + T ). As example, the rectangular pulse shown in Figure
below, the right-shifted pulse x(t − 1) is x(t) shifted by 1 s to the right (delayed by one
second, as the values of x(t) occur 1 s late). For example, the first nonzero value
occurs at t = 2. That is, the value of x(t) at to occurs in the shifted pulse '1' second later
at to + 1. The pulse x(t + 1.5) is x(t) shifted by 1.5 second to the left (advanced by 1.5
second, as the values of x(t) occur 1.5 second early). For example, the first nonzero
value occurs at t = −0.5. That is, the value of x(t) at to occurs in the shifted pulse 1.5
second earlier at to − 1.5.

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Chapter One

Note
If T is positive, the shift means delay, while if T is negative the shift means advance.
Example
An exponential function shown in Figure below is delayed by 1 sec, sketch and
mathematically describe the delayed function. Repeat the problem with x(t) advanced
by 3 sec.

x(t)
4
4

Solution
For delay by 1
x(t)→x(t-T) = x(t-1)

x(t-1)
4
( )
4

t
1

The function x(t) can be described mathematically as

x(t) = 4 ≥0
0 <0
so, the xd(t) "delayed signal" , this x(t-1)
( )
xd(t) = x(t)|t→t-1 = x(t-1) = 4 −1≥0
0 −1 <0

xd(t) = 4 ≥1
0 <1

for the advanced signal xa(t) by 3 second

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Chapter One

x(t+3)

( ) 4
4

t
-3

( )
xa(t) = x(t)|t→t+3 = x(t+3) = 4 +3 ≥0
0 +3<0

xa(t) = 4 ≥ −3
0 < −3

Time Scaling

Replacing the independent variable t in x(t) by at, (a ≠ 0), results in the time-scaled
signal x(at). With |a| > 1, we get a time-compressed version of x(t). With |a| < 1, we
get a time-expanded version. The value of x(t) at t = to occurs at t = to/a in x(at). The
signal x(t) = cos(π8t), shown in Figure below by a solid line, completes two cycles
during 32 s. The time-compressed version with a = 2, x(2t) = cos(π8(2t)), shown in
Figure below by a dashed line, completes four cycles during 32 s. The value of the
signal x(t) at t occurs at t/2 in x(2t).

Note
Signal time compressed by factor 'b' means x(bt), while signal time expanded by
factor 'b' means x(t/b).
Example
Figure below shows a signal x(t). sketch and describe mathematically how this signal
compressed by factor 3. Repeat the solution for the same signal but expanded by
factor 2.

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Chapter One
x(t)
2
/
2

-1.5 3
Solution

/
/ 2
2

-0.5 1 -3 6

2 − 1.5 ≤ <0
( )= 2 /
0≤ <3
0 ℎ
2 − 0.5 ≤ <0
(3 ) = 2 /
0≤ <1
0 ℎ
2 −3≤ <0
( /2) = 2 /
0≤ <6
0 ℎ

Time Reversal
Replacing the independent variable t in x(t) by−t results in the time-reversed or folded
signal x(−t). The value of x(t) at t = to occurs at t = −to in x(−t). The signal and its
time-reversed version are mirror images of each other.

x(t) x(t)

2 2

t -3 2 t
2- 3
1- -1

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Chapter One

Example

For the signal x(t) shown in Figure below, sketch x(-t) which is time reversed of x(t).
x(t) x(-t)

/ /
t t
Solution
/
x(t) = − 1 ≥ > −5
0 ℎ
/
x(-t) = 1≤ <5
0 ℎ

Combined Operation

The most general operation involving all the three previous operations is x(at-b) and
could be realized in two possible sequences of operations

1. Time shifting x(t) →x(t)|t→t-b = x(t-b) , then apply time scaling of

x(t)→x(t)|t→at = x(at-b)
2. Time scaling x(t)→x(t)|t→at = x(at) , then apply time shifting of
x(at)→x(at)|t→t-b/a = x(a(t-b/a))

Note: In either case, if 'a' is negative, time scaling will involve time reversal.

Example

Sketch x(2t-6) if x(t) as shown in the figure below.

x(t)
1

t
-2 4
Solution

1. Time shift by 6

4 6 10

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Chapter One

Then scaling
x(2t-6)

2 3 5
2. Scaling by 2

-1 2
Then shifting by b/a=6/2=3
x(2(t-3))

2 3 5

Some Useful Signal Models

Unit step Function U(t)

The unit-step signal is an all-one sequence for positive values of its argument and
is an all-zero sequence for negative values of its argument. Using scaled and shifted
unit-step signals, any signal, described differently over different intervals, can be
specified, for easier mathematical analysis, by a single expression. Mathematically,
unit step function can be described as below:

( )= 1 ≥0
0 <0

x(t)

The unit step function is used for signal beginning at t=0.

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Chapter One

( )= ( )
x(t)

( )= ≥0
0 <0
The reversal of U(t) is U(-t) and used for ending the signals. This could be illustrated
by the figure below
x(t)

Example

Sketch 4U(t-3), U(-t-2), U(t+2) and U(t)-U(t-4)

Solution
4U(t-3)

t
3

U(-t-2)

t
-2

U(t+2)
1

t
-2

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Chapter One

U(t)-U(t-4)

t
4

Unit Impulse Function or Impulse Signal δ(t)

( )
The unit-impulse signal, shown in Figure 2.3(a), is defined as

( )= 1 =0
t
0 ≠0
The unit-impulse signal is an all-zero sequence except that it has a value of one when
its argument is equal to zero. A time-shifted unit-impulse signal δ(n − m), with
argument (n − m), has its only nonzero value at n = m. Therefore, ∑ ( ) ( − )
= x(m) is called the sampling or shifting property of the impulse. Note that,

∫ ( ) =1 and ∫ ( ) ( ) = (0)

∫ ( ) ( − ) = ( ) and ( − )=0 ≠ and

(0) <0 >0

( ) ( ) = 0 >0 <0
= =0

The integration operation, with respect to t, sums all these impulses to form x(t). It
should be emphasized that the integral, in this instance, represents a sum of a
continuum of impulses (not an evaluation of an area). Therefore, the signal x(t) is
represented by the sum of scaled and shifted continuum of impulses with the strength
of the impulse at any t being x(t)dt. The unit-impulse is the basis function and x(t)dt is
its coefficient. As the area enclosed by the integrand is nonzero only at the point t = k,
the integral is effective only at that point.
Note
A function, which is the derivative of the unit-step function, must have its integral
equal to zero for t < 0 and one for t > 0. Therefore, such a function must be defined
to have unit area at t = 0 and zero area elsewhere.

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Chapter One

Example
Find
( + 3) ( ) = (0 + 3) ( ) = 3 ( )

sin − ( )=− ( )

( − 1) = ( − 1) = ( − 1)

∫ ( ) = =1

∫ ( − 2) cos = cos =0
( ) (2 − ) ( )
∫ =

∫ ( − 3) =

∫ ( + 3) =0

∏(t)
Unit Gate Function ∏(t) or rect(t)
The unit gate function is defined as 1

1 | |<
∏( ) = t
1/2- 1/2
0 | |>

The function could be represented by ∏( ) which illustrated in the figure below

∏(t)
A
τ
t
to

Example

Sketch 4∏( ) , −2∏( ).

Solution
∏(t)

4
2
t
15 2 3 4
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Chapter One

∏(t)

-6 -5 -4 t
2

Example

Sketch 2∏ + 5∏( )

Solution

2∏(t/3) 5∏(t/6)
5
2

t t
1.5- 1.5 3- 3

3- 1.5- 1.5 3
Example

Write the signal x(t) for the following figure.

x(t)
10

4 6
Solution

( )=4 +6 ( )

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Chapter One

Or ( ) = 10 +4 ( )

Or ( ) = 10 −6 ( )

Example

Determine x(-3), x(0) and x(3) if:

( ) = 10 −4 ( )

Solution

By graph

+1 +3
10 4 ( )
6 2
10
4
t t
4- 2 4- -2

x(t)

10
6

t
4- -2 2

From the graph, x(-3)=6, x(0)=10, x(3)=0

By equation

−3 + 1 −3 + 3 1
(−3) = 10 −4 = 10 − −4 (0)
6 2 3
= 10 ∗ 1 − 4 ∗ 1 = 6

0+1 0+3 1 3
(0) = 10 −4 = 10 −4
6 2 6 2
= 10 ∗ 1 − 4 ∗ 0 = 10

3+1 3+3 4
(3) = 10 −4 = 10 −4 (3)
6 2 6
= 10 ∗ 0 − 4 ∗ 0 = 0

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Chapter One

Example

Use U(t) to express the following signal

x(t)

Solution 2 3
x2(t) x1(t)
x1(t) = t

x2(t) = -2t+6 2 2

2 3 2

by using U(t)

x(t) = x1(t) [U(t) - U(t-2)] + x2(t) [U(t-2) - U(t-3)]

x(t) = t [U(t) – U(t-2)] + (-2t+6) [U(t-2) – U(t-3)]

x(t) = t U(t) –t U(t-2) + (-2t+6) U(t-2) – (-2t+6) U(t-3)

x(t) = t U(t) – 3(t-2) U(t-2) +2(t-3) U(t-3)

Note: t U(t) is called ramp function r(t) or ramp(t)

Unit Triangular Signal Δ(t) or tri(t)

A triangular function is a function whose graph takes the shape of a triangle.

Mathematically, this function could be described as below:

1 − 2| | | | < 1/2
∆( ) =
0 ℎ

The general equation of this function is ∆( ) which is illustrated in the figure

below:
x(t)
A

to t
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Chapter One

Example

Sketch 3∆( ), −2∆( ).

Solution
−2 +1
3∆( ) −2∆( )
4 3
3
3
2 -2.5 1- 0.5
t t
4

Example

Express the following signal

-5 -4 -3
4 4.5 5

-2

.
2∆ − 2∆( )

The Exponential Function (est)

Another important function in the signals analyzing is the exponential function est
where 's' is complex in general and defined by:

S = σ + Jω

est = e(σ+Jω)t = eσt * eJωt = eσt (cos ωt+Jsinωt)

since S* = σ – Jω is the conjugate of S, then:

∗
= ( − )

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Chapter One
∗
And = [ + ], where S is called complex frequency. Now, let's
study some special cases for complex frequency.

1. A constant x(t) = K, x(t) = Ke0t, where S = 0

S=0
t
σt
2. A monotonic exponential x(t) = e , where S=σ and ω=0.

σ is positive
σ is negative

σ = 10

σ=3

3. A sinusoidal cosωt, where σ = 0 and S = ±Jω

The complex sinusoid is given as

The term ejωt is the complex sinusoid with unit magnitude and zero phase. Its complex
(amplitude) coefficient is Aejθ. The amplitude and phase of the sinusoid is represented
by the single complex number Aejθ. By adding its complex conjugate,
Ae-j(ωt+θ) and dividing by two we get

4. An exponentially varying sinusoid

An exponentially varying amplitude sinusoid, Aeat cos(ωt + θ), is obtained by

multiplying a sinusoid, Acos(ωt + θ), by a real exponential, eat . The more familiar
constant amplitude sinusoid results when a = 0. If ω is equal to zero, then we get a

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 Chapter One

real exponential. Sinusoids, x(t) = e-0.1t cos( 2π8 t) and x(t) = e0.1t cos( 2π8 t), with
exponentially varying amplitudes are shown, respectively, in Figures below:

S-Plane "Complex Frequency Plane"

The complex frequency 'S' can be represented in complex frequency plane "S-Plane".
The figure below showing S-plane in terms of σ and jω.

jω

Left half Plane Right half Plane

Constant σ

Exponentially Decreasing Signals Exponentially Increasing Signals

Sinusoid

Example

Sketch the S-plane for x(t). x(t) = 10 e-5t cos 3t + 2 – 4 e3t + 2 sin 2t

Solution Jω

S1,2 = σ + jω = -5 ± J3
S1 (-5, 3)
S3 = 0 •
• S5 (0, 2)
S4 = 3
S3 (0, 0) S4 (3, 0) σ
S5,6 = ± J2 • •

• S6 (0, -2)
S2 (-5,- 3)
•

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Chapter One

Phasors and Line Spectra

The complex number could be represented by rejθ = r(cosθ + j sinθ). Consider a
sinusoidal or AC waveform is represented as

V(t) = Vm cos (ωo t + ϕ)

Where 'Vm' is the peak or amplitude, 'ωo' is the radian frequency and 'ϕ' is the pahse
angle. V(t) repeats itself with repetition period 'To' which equal to 2π/ωo

V(t)
A

ϕ t

As we defined ' e±Jθ ' previously

e±Jθ = cosθ ± J sinθ

then, = and =

( ) ( )
cos( + )= +

Hence cosθ = Re[e±Jθ],

then cos(ωot +θ) = Re[e±J(ωot +θ)]. That's mean,

( )
V is the Phasor representation of the sinusoid v(t). Note that could be
represented as in the figure below

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Chapter One
A
Phasor
to = 0
θ ωo = 0

Example

Draw the phasor for the following signals.

V1(t) = 3 cos (2πt -30o)

V2(t) = 5 sin (2π*10t +30o)

V3(t) = 3 cos (2π*10t -30o) + 2 cos (2π*10t +60o)

V4(t) = 3 cos (2πt -45o) + 2 cos (2π*100t -30o)

Solution

V1(t) = 3 cos (2πt -30o) -30o fo = 1 Hz

fo = ωo/2π = 1/To = 1 Hz
3

V2(t) = 5 sin (2π*10t +30o)

As we know sinθ = cos(θ-90o) , therefore, V2(t) = 5 cos (2π*10t - 60o)

-60o fo = 10 Hz

V3(t) = 3 cos (2π*10t -30o) + 2 cos (2π*10t +60o) 2

+60
o
-30o fo = 10 Hz fo = 10 Hz

3
٣

V4(t) = 3 cos (2πt -45o) + 2 cos (2π*100t -30o)

-45o fo = 1 Hz -30o fo = 100 Hz

3 2
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Chapter One

The Frequency Spectrum of the Signal

The frequency domain representation of a signal is given by the frequency spectrum
of the signal. The signal spectrum consists of an amplitude spectrum and a phase
spectrum. The amplitude spectrum specifies the amplitude of signal components as a
function of component frequency. The phase spectrum specifies the phase of signal
components as a function of component frequency. This phase is measured with
respect to a cosine reference. For example,

has components with amplitudes of 4 and 2 and phases of –π/4 and π at frequencies of
15 and 20 Hz. The amplitude and phase spectra can be plotted either as single-sided
or double-sided. The double-sided spectrum results from the representation of the
signal component

The amplitude spectrum contains the value A1/2 at frequencies f1 and - f1. The phase
spectrum contains the values θ1 and - θ1 at frequencies f1 and - f1, respectively. Thus,
the double-sided spectra for f> 0 looks like the single-sided spectra except that
amplitude values for f> 0 are one-half as large. If a DC component exists (that is, a
component at f = 0) then the amplitude spectrum value for this component is the same
for both the single-sided and double-sided spectrum. The figure shown below
represents the double -sided amplitude and phase spectra, respectively.

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Chapter One

Note
1. In frequency spectrum, the independent variable could be either frequency "f"
or radian frequency "ω".
2. The phase of signal "θ" or "ϕ" will be measured with respect to cosine wave,
therefore, if there is sine wave, then it should be converted to cosine using the
trigonometric relation:
sin ωt = cos (ωt-90)
3. The Amplitude is always positive. If there is negative sign before the
amplitude, it should be absorbed in the phase using the relation:
-A cos ωt = A cos (ωt±180o)
Note that the phase should not exceed 180o.

Example
Plot the single-sided spectrum of the following signals:
V1(t) = 2 cos (2π*10 t -30o)

V2(t) = 10 + 2 sin (2π*20 t +30o)

V3(t) = cos (2π*10 t + 45o) - 2 cos (2π*20 t +60o)

Solution
V1(t) = 2 cos (2π*10 t -30o)

Amplitude Phase

10
f f
10
-30o

V2(t) = 10 + 2 sin (2π*20 t +30o)

V2(t) = 10 cos (0t) + 2 cos (2π*20 t - 60o)

Amplitude Phase

10

2
20
f f
20
-60o
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Chapter One

V3(t) = cos (2π*10 t + 45o) - 2 cos (2π*20 t +60o)

V3(t) = cos (2π*10 t + 45o) + 2 cos (2π*20 t -120o)

Amplitude Phase

2 45
1 o

20
f f
10 20 10

-120o

Example

Draw the double sided spectrum of :

V2(t) = 8 + cos (2π *2 t - 30o) + 4 cos (2π*4 t + 60o)

Amplitude
8

2 2

0.5 0.5
f
4- 2- 2 4

Phase

o
60o
30

4- 2 f
2- 4

-30o
-60o

Example

Sketch the single sided and double sided spectrum of the signals below:

V1(t) = 3 + 10 cos (2π *30 t + 120o) + 4 cos (2π*50 t) + 8 cos (2π*60 t - 80o)

V2(t) = -5 - sin (50*103 π t)

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Solution

V1(t) = 3 + 10 cos (2π *30 t + 120o) + 4 cos (2π*50 t) + 8 cos (2π*60 t - 80o)

Amplitude Phase
8
10
120o
4
3
60 f
f
30 50 60 30

-80o

Amplitude

5 5
4 4
3 2
2

f
60- 50- 30- 30 50 60

Phase
80o 120o

30- 60 f
60- 30

-80o
-120o

V2(t) = -5 - sin (50*103 π t)

V2(t) = 5 cos (0t+180o) + cos (2π*25*103 t +90o)

Amplitude Phase

5 180o 90o

1
f (KHz) f (KHz)
2.5 25

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Amplitude
5

0.5 0.5

f (KHz)
2.5- 2.5

Phase
180o 90o

2.5- f (KHz)
2.5

-90o

V3(t) = 8 cos (2π *100 t) cos (2π*103 t)

Hence, cosAcosB = 1/2 cos(A+B) +1/2 cos(A-B)

Then, V3(t) = 8 [0.5 cos (2π *1100 t) + 0.5 cos (- 2π*900 t)]

V3(t) = 4 cos (2π *1100 t) + 4cos (- 2π*900 t)

Amplitude

4 4

f
900 1100

Amplitude
5
2 2 2 2

f
-1100 -900 900 1100

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V4(t) = 5 + 4 cos2 (2π*100 t – 30o)

V4(t) = 5 + 4 [1/2 (1 + cos 2(2π*100 t – 30o))]

V4(t) = 5 + 2 + 2 cos (2π*200 t – 60o) = 7+2 cos (2π*200 t – 60o)

Amplitude Phase

7 180o

2
f 200 f
200

-60o

Amplitude
7

1 1

f
200- 200

Phase
o
60

200
f
200-

-60o
H.W.

V1(t) = 10 sin (2π *100 t) cos (2π*103 t)

V2(t) = 16 cos3 (2π*100 t)

V3(t) = 3.5 + cos (2π *100 t - 30o) + π cos (400π t)

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Dr. Emad Al-Mohammed