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IEEE Guide For The Application, Specification, and Testing of Phase-Shifting Transformers

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IEEE Guide for the Application,
Specification, and Testing of
Phase-Shifting Transformers

IEEE Power & Energy Society

IEEE Guide for the Application,

Specification, and Testing of
Phase-Shifting Transformers

Sponsor

Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power & Energy Society

Approved 16 June 2011

IEEE-SA Standards Board

Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIV OF ALABAMA-BIRMINGHAM. Downloaded on December 09,2012 at 11:08:48 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
Abstract: Theory, application of phase-shifting transformers, and the difference of specification
and testing to standard system transformers are described in this guide. Various types of phase-
shifting transformers and how to select the optimal design to achieve required control of power
flow are covered. An understanding of the terminology, types, construction, and testing specific to
phase-shifting transformers is provided.

Keywords: advance phase angle, dual-core design, IEEE C57.135, main transformer, phase-
shifting transformer, power transfer, retard phase angle, series transformer, single-core design,
special tests
•

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5997, USA

Copyright © 2011 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

IEEE is a registered trademark in the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office, owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
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Print: ISBN 978-0-7381-6692-6 STDPD97130

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Introduction

This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.135-2011, IEEE Guide for the Application, Specification, and Testing of
Phase-Shifting Transformers.

This guide describes the application, specification, and testing of phase-shifting transformers. It is intended
for the following:

⎯ Organizations responsible for the application and specification of phase-shifting transformers

for electric transmission systems to control power flow.
⎯ Organizations responsible for testing phase-shifting transformers.

This guide is designed to help organizations:

⎯ Understand the various types of phase-shifting transformers and how to apply them to obtain
required control of power flow.
⎯ Prepare specifications for the purchase of phase-shifting transformers.
⎯ Standardize tests and test methods for phase-shifting transformers.

This guide is intended to satisfy the following objectives:

⎯ Promote consistency within organizations for the application and specification of phase-shifting
transformers.
⎯ Provide an understanding of the terminology, types, construction, and testing relating
specifically to phase-shifting transformers.
⎯ Promote the standardization of testing procedures for phase-shifting transformers.

Since this guide was first published in 2001, several recommendations from users and manufacturers were
made to revise it to improve accuracy and applicability. Some of the revisions are as follows:

⎯ Figure 1, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 7, and Figure 11 were improved.

⎯ Equation (1) was divided into two parts to show the difference between advance and retard
operations.
⎯ A new section on minimum information requirements for specifying a PST was inserted.
⎯ Various editorial changes were made to clarify the contents of the guide.

Notice to users

Laws and regulations

Users of these documents should consult all applicable laws and regulations. Compliance with the
provisions of this standard does not imply compliance to any applicable regulatory requirements.
Implementers of the standard are responsible for observing or referring to the applicable regulatory
requirements. IEEE does not, by the publication of its standards, intend to urge action that is not in
compliance with applicable laws, and these documents may not be construed as doing so.

iv
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Copyrights
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index.html.

Patents
Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of this guide may require use of subject matter
covered by patent rights. By publication of this guide, no position is taken with respect to the existence or
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Patent Claims for which a license may be required, for conducting inquiries into the legal validity or scope
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may be obtained from the IEEE Standards Association.

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Participants
At the time this IEEE guide was originally completed, the Phase Shifting Transformers Working Group had
the following membership:

Edgar R. Trummer, Chair

Thomas Lundquist, Co-Chair and Co-Secretary
Donald Chu, Secretary

Rajendra Ahuja Everett Hager Sam Perkins

Dennis Allan Wayne Hansen V. Pham
Dave Allaway Jim Harlow Gustav Preininger
Burhan Becer Bill Kennedy Patrick Pries
E. Betancourt Lincoln Koga Jean-Christophe Riboud
Alvaro Cancino Luther Kurtz P. Russman
Don Cash Mike Lau V. Sankar
Bob Clark J. Leech M. Saravolac
Peter Clarke Stan Lindgren Vic Shenoy
Florian Costa Jack McGill John Slapp
Vince Dahinden Jim McIver Bob Stewart
Dan de la Cruz Harold Moore Bill Thompson
Dieter Dohnal Patrick McShane Chuck Todd
Fred Elliot Jerry Mundo Robert Veitch
Joseph Foldi G. Paiva Jim Warden
J. Fyvie Bipin Patel Joe Watson
D. A. Gillies D. Perco Klaus Weidmann

At the time this IEEE guide was updated and revised, the Phase Shifting Transformers Working Group had
the following membership:

H. Jin Sim, Chair

Sanjay Patel, Vice Chair
Joe Watson, Secretary

Carlo Arpino Axel Kraemer Jean-Christophe Riboud

Dietrich Bonmann Paul Jarman Mathieu Sauzay
Alan Darwin Michael Lau Ewald Schweiger
Eric Davis Thomas Lundquist Florence Tridon
Dieter Dohnal James McIver Edgar R. Trummer
Joseph Foldi Bipin Patel Loren Wagenaar
Eduardo Garcia Gustav Preininger Dieter Wagner
Wayne Hansen Hanxin Zhu

vi
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The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this guide. Balloters may have
voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.

William J. Ackerman Randall Groves Gustav Preininger

Carlo Arpino David Harris Iulian Profir
Peter Balma Roger Hedding Jean-Christophe Riboud
Barry Beaster Gary Heuston Michael Roberts
W. J. (Bill) Bergman John Houdek Charles Rogers
Wallace Binder Jim Kulchisky Oleg Roizman
Thomas Bishop John Lackey Bartien Sayogo
Daniel Blaydon Chung-Yiu Lam Devki Sharma
W. Boettger Thomas La Rose Gil Shultz
Chris Brooks Thomas Lundquist H. Jin Sim
Carl Bush Greg Luri James Smith
Arvind K. Chaudhary J. Dennis Marlow Jerry Smith
Stephen Conrad John W. Matthews Gary Stoedter
Jerry Corkran Omar Mazzoni David Tepen
Luis Coronado Joseph Melanson Eric Udren
Dieter Dohnal Gary Michel John Vergis
Gary Donner Michael S. Newman Jane Verner
Keith Ellis Lorraine Padden Ilia Voloh
Joseph Foldi Howard Penrose Loren Wagenaar
Marcel Fortin Christopher Petrola Joe Watson
David Gilmer Alvaro Portillo Jian Yu
Jalal Gohari Luis Zambrano

When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this guide on 16 June 2011, it had the following
membership:

Richard H. Hulett, Chair

John Kulick, Vice Chair
Robert Grow, Past Chair
Judith Gorman, Secretary

Masayuki Ariyoshi Paul Houzé Jon Rosdahl

William Bartley Jim Hughes Sam Sciacca
Ted Burse David Law Mike Seavey
Clint Chaplin Thomas Lee Curtis Siller
Wael Diab Hung Ling Phil Winston
Jean-Philippe Faure Oleg Logvinov Howard Wolfman
Alex Gelman Ted Olsen Don Wright
Gary Robinson

*Member Emeritus
Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:

Satish Aggarwal, NRC Representative

Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative
Michael Janezic, NIST Representative

Catherine Berger
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development

Erin Spiewak
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development

vii
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Contents

1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 1

2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 2

3. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 2

4. Application and theory of PSTs.................................................................................................................. 4

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 4
4.2 Basic principle of application—advanced and retard phase angle....................................................... 4
4.3 PST under load .................................................................................................................................... 6
4.4 Power transfer ...................................................................................................................................... 8
4.5 Types of PSTs.................................................................................................................................... 10
4.6 Special on load tap changer (OLTC) features.................................................................................... 16
4.7 Arrangement of more than one PST .................................................................................................. 20
4.8 Design criteria.................................................................................................................................... 20

5. Service conditions .................................................................................................................................... 21

5.1 Usual service conditions .................................................................................................................... 21
5.2 Loading at other than rated conditions............................................................................................... 22
5.3 Unusual service conditions ................................................................................................................ 22
5.4 Protection ........................................................................................................................................... 23

6. Rating data................................................................................................................................................ 26
6.1 Polarity, angular displacement, and terminal markings ..................................................................... 26
6.2 Impedance.......................................................................................................................................... 26
6.3 Name plates ....................................................................................................................................... 27

7. Construction ............................................................................................................................................. 27
7.1 Enclosed throat connections .............................................................................................................. 27
7.2 Liquid insulation and preservation system ........................................................................................ 27

8. Short-circuit characteristics ...................................................................................................................... 28

8.1 Short-circuit requirements ................................................................................................................. 28

9. Control system .......................................................................................................................................... 29

9.1 Control equipment and accessories.................................................................................................... 29
9.2 Requirements ..................................................................................................................................... 29
9.3 Test code for control systems ............................................................................................................ 31

10. Testing of PSTs ...................................................................................................................................... 32

10.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 32
10.2 Special tests for PSTs ...................................................................................................................... 33

11. Tolerances .............................................................................................................................................. 34

11.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 34
11.2 Tolerances for ratio of series and exciting units .............................................................................. 34
11.3 Tolerance for phase angle and impedance ....................................................................................... 34

viii
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12. Bid document checklist .......................................................................................................................... 35
12.1 Nontechnical information ................................................................................................................ 35
12.2 Technical information ...................................................................................................................... 35
12.3 Special requirements or conditions .................................................................................................. 36
12.4 Additional information .................................................................................................................... 36

Annex A (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 38

ix
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IEEE Guide for the Application,
Specification, and Testing of
Phase-Shifting Transformers

IMPORTANT NOTICE: This standard is not intended to ensure safety, security, health, or
environmental protection. Implementers of the standard are responsible for determining appropriate
safety, security, environmental, and health practices or regulatory requirements.

This IEEE document is made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers.
These notices and disclaimers appear in all publications containing this document and may
be found under the heading “Important Notice” or “Important Notices and Disclaimers
Concerning IEEE Documents.” They can also be obtained on request from IEEE or viewed at
http://standards.ieee.org/IPR/disclaimers.html.

1. Overview

1.1 Scope

This guide covers the application, specification, theory of operation, and factory and field testing of single-
phase and three-phase oil-immersed, phase-shifting transformers (PSTs).

This guide is limited to matters particular to PSTs and does not include matters relating to general
requirements for power transformers covered in existing standards, recommended practices, or guides.

1.2 Purpose

The terminology, function, application, theory of operation and protection, and design of PSTs are not
covered by existing transformer standards and guides. The purpose of this document is to provide guidance
to those specifying, designing, and using PSTs.

1
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IEEE Std C57.135-2011
IEEE Guide for the Application, Specification, and Testing of Phase-Shifting Transformers

2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.

IEC 60076-1, Power Transformers—Part 1: General.1

IEC 60076-3, Power Transformers—Part 3: Insulation Levels, Dielectric Tests and External Clearances in
Air.

IEC 60076-5, Power Transformers—Part 5: Ability to Withstand Short Circuit.

IEC 60076-7, Power Transformers—Part 7: Loading Guide for Oil-Immersed Power Transformers.

IEEE Std 693TM, IEEE Recommended Practice for Seismic Design for Substations.2,3

IEEE Std C37.90.1TM-1989, IEEE Standard for Surge Withstand Capability (SWC) Tests for Relays and
Relay Systems Associated with Electric Power Apparatus.

IEEE Std C57.12.00TM, IEEE Standard General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power,
and Regulating Transformers.

IEEE Std C57.12.80TM, IEEE Standard Terminology for Power and Distribution Transformers.

IEEE Std C57.12.90TM, IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating
Transformers, and IEEE Guide for Short-Circuit Testing of Distribution and Power Transformers.

3. Definitions

For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards
Dictionary: Glossary of Terms & Definitions4 should be consulted for terms not defined in this clause.
All other definitions, except as specifically covered in this guide, shall be in accordance with IEEE Std
C57.12.80TM.5

advance phase angle: The phase angle expressed in degrees that results when the load (L) terminal voltage
leads the source (S) terminal voltage.

excitation-regulating winding: A two-core phase-shifting transformer (PST) design in which the exciting
unit has one winding operating as an autotransformer that performs both functions listed under excitation
and regulating winding of a two-core PST.

1
IEC publications are available from the Sales Department of the International Electrotechnical Commission, Case Postale 131, 3 rue
de Varembé, CH-1211, Genève 20, Switzerland/Suisse (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States
from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 11 West 42nd Street, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA.
2
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854-
4141, USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).
3
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Incorporated.
4
The IEEE Standards Dictionary: Glossary of Terms and Definitions is available at http://shop.ieee.org.
5
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.

2
Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

excitation winding: The winding of a phase-shifting transformer (PST) that draws power from the source
to energize the PST.

excited winding of a two-core phase-shifting transformer (PST): The winding of the series unit that is
excited from the regulating winding of the exciting unit.

exciting unit of a two-core phase-shifting transformer (PST): The core and coils that furnish excitation
to the series unit.

L terminal: The L terminal is the terminal that is used to measure the voltage phase-shift angle when
compared to the S terminal of the phase-shifting transformer (PST).

primary winding of the exciting unit of a two-core phase-shifting transformer (PST): The winding on
the high-voltage side of the exciting unit.

phase-shifting transformer (PST): A transformer that advances or retards the voltage phase-angle
relationship of one circuit with respect to another.

rated kVA of a phase-shifting transformer (PST): The apparent power at rated voltage for which the
PST is designed.

rated phase angle of a phase-shifting transformer (PST): The phase angle measured between the S and
L terminals at maximum advance and/or retard tap position under no-load condition.

rated voltage of a phase-shifting transformer (PST): The phase-to-phase voltage to which operating and
performance characteristics are referred. The voltage ratings are to be defined at no-load and based on turn
ratios.

regulated circuit of a phase-shifting transformer (PST): The circuit on the output side of the PST in
which it is desired to control the voltage, the phase relation, or both.

NOTE—In the regulated circuit the voltage may be held constant, or may vary with or without relation to the phase
angle depending on the type of PST.6
regulating winding: The winding of a single-core phase-shifting transformer (PST) or of the exciting unit
of a two-core PST in which taps are changed to vary the phase angle.

retard phase angle: The phase angle expressed in degrees that results when the L terminal voltage lags the
S terminal voltage.

series unit of a two-core phase-shifting transformer (PST): The core and coil unit that has one or more
windings connected in series with the line circuit.

series winding(s) of a two-core phase-shifting transformer (PST): The winding(s) of the series unit that
is(are) connected in series in the line circuit.

single-core design: A single-core phase-shifting transformer (PST) has all windings mounted on a single
core.

S terminal: The S terminal is the terminal that is used as the fixed reference point when measuring the
voltage phase angle of a phase-shifting transformer (PST).

6
Notes in text, tables, and figures of a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement
this standard.

3
Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

two-core design: A two-core phase-shifting transformer (PST) consists of a series unit and a exciting unit.
The series and the exciting unit can be either in one tank or in separate tanks.

4. Application and theory of PSTs

4.1 Introduction

The development of large, high-voltage power grids has enabled power consumers to enjoy the benefits of
more reliable and efficient service and has allowed generation sources to be, in some cases, located long
distances from large load centers. Although large interconnected grids strengthen a power system’s
reliability, complications can arise with the control of steady-state power flow along certain segments of
the system. These complications can be attributed to several factors, including the impedance of parallel
paths in the power grid, variation in power generation output, and variation in loads and load center phase
angles.

4.2 Basic principle of application—advanced and retard phase angle

PSTs are used to control the power flow in electrical power systems. When power flows between two
systems, there is a voltage drop and a phase-angle shift between the source and the load that depends upon
the magnitude and power factor of the load current. If the systems are connected together in two or more
parallel paths so that a loop exists, any difference in the impedances will cause unbalanced line loading.
Figure 1 shows an example with the load side power factor assumed to be 1 and the system resistances
being negligible with respect to their reactances. An arbitrary power flow distribution can be obtained by
inserting a PST into one of the branches. Dependent upon whether the PST is installed in the branch with
the higher or lower impedance, an advanced or a retard phase angle is needed. Advanced means that the L
terminal voltage (VL) leads the S terminal voltage (VS); retard means that the L terminal voltage (VL) lags
the S terminal voltage (VS).

4
Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

Figure 1 —Load side power factor of 1

Equation (1a) and Equation (1b) illustrate the advance and retard operations shown in Figure 1.

I 2 * Z 2 − ΔV − I 1 * Z 1 = 0 ΔV = I 2 * Z 2 − I 1 * Z 1 (1a)

I 1 * Z 1 + ΔV − I 2 * Z 2 = 0 ΔV = I 2 * Z 2 − I 1 * Z 1 (1b)

A numerical example should illustrate this. If it is required that both systems are loaded with 50% of the
total transferred power 2xS and the impedances are assumed to be z1 = 0.02 and z2 = 0.30, related to S, the
necessary additional voltage becomes V = 0.30 – 0.02 = 0.28. Hence, a load phase angle (advanced) of
about 15.6° (arctan(0.28)) is necessary. The total angle between source and load becomes minus 1.1°. In
case with z1 = 0.30 and z2 = 0.02, the same load phase angle (retard) would be needed, but the total phase
angle between source and load would become 16.7°. If no measures were taken, then the load distribution
between system 1 and 2 would be 0.9375 to 0.0625 instead of 0.5 to 0.5.

A second important application is the use of a PST to control the power flow between two large
independent grids. An advanced phase-shifting angle is necessary to achieve a flow of active power from
system 1 to system 2 (Figure 2).

5
Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

Figure 2 —Advanced phase-shifting angle

4.3 PST under load

So far an “ideal” PST (i.e., a transformer with an impedance zT = 0) has been dealt with. To demonstrate
load conditions, an equivalent circuit phasor diagram is used as shown in Figure 3 with an ideal PST with
zT = 0 and an additional transformer with a turns ratio of 1:1 and an impedance zT = RT + jXT.

where
VL* is load-side voltage (no-load)
VL is load-side voltage (loaded)
VS(a) is source-side voltage (advanced)
VS(r) is source-side voltage (retard)
IL is load current
cos L is load power factor
zT is transformer impedance
is transformer load angle
is phase-shift angle
+ advanced
– retard

6
Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

Figure 3 —Demonstration of load conditions

Next, the phasor diagram of the PST can be drawn. Starting with the load voltage VL and calculating the
ohmic and reactive voltage drop in the 1:1 transformer, the load voltage VL* can be obtained. The load
phase angle can be calculated with Equation (2):

I L × X × cos ϕ L − I L × R × sin ϕ L ZT × cos ϕ L

β = arctan ≅ arctan (2)
VL × I L × X × sin ϕ L + I L × R × cos ϕ L 100 + ZT × sin ϕ L

The PST adds ±, and so, finally, the load phase angles of the transformer α*(a) and α*(r), respectively, are
obtained as shown in Equations (3) and (4):

*(a) = – is phase-shift angle (loaded) advance (3)

*(r) = –( + ) is phase-shift angle (loaded) retard (4)

On the one hand, to obtain an advanced phase angle α*(a) under load, the no-load phase angle α has to be
chosen properly under consideration of the phase angle α*(r) of the PST. On the other hand, the retard phase
angle α*(r) is increased under load. This has an impact on transformer and tap changer as discussed in 4.8.4.

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4.4 Power transfer

A PST has two separate effects on power flow. First, the no-load phase angle creates an additional voltage
that drives additional current through the line. Second, the PST’s additional impedance is added to the
circuit. These two effects may work against each other. Therefore, a minimum phase angle is usually
required to compensate for the additional voltage drop across the PST’s impedance in the advanced
position. To ease the following considerations, the impedance of the PST has been assumed to be constant
over the whole regulating range, a tolerable approximation for two-core designs (the impedance of single-
core designs is commonly zero at 0° phase shift).

With the denotations used in Figure 3 and

P0 is active power transferred when = 0 (preload)

Q0 is reactive power transferred when = 0 (preload)

the power components at the source side are calculated using Equations (5) and (6):

VS2
P (α ) = P0 × cos α − Q0 × sin α + × sin α (5)
XT

VS2
Q (α ) = P0 × sin α + Q0 × cos α + × (1 − cos α 0 ) (6)
XT

Figure 4 explains the effect of the introduction of the phase-shift angle . In the formula, the first two terms
reflect the effect of the phase angle on the original power flow as easily can be derived from Figure 4. The
last term represents the additional power flow generated by the additional voltage V across the impedance
jX of the PST. Taking into consideration that the real component of V (–V* cos(/2)) drives a current
with a positive imaginary component and the imaginary component of V (–V*sin(/2)) is a current with
a positive real component and that V = 2*Vs * sin((/2), the last terms in Equations (5) and (6),
respectively, can be confirmed without difficulties.

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Figure 4 —Effect of phase-shift angle

Figure 5 shows the variation of the additional power flow (assumption: P0 = Q0 = 0, ZT ≈ jXT, Vs2/XT = 1)
with the PST angle α.

0.5

0.4 Active Power Reactive Power

__________ _________
Power (per unit)

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Phase angle (º)

Figure 5 —Variation of additional power flow with the PST angle

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Figure 6 shows as an example the variation of the power flow at the source side with the phase angle ,
depending on different preload conditions. The maximum additional power transferred has been assumed to
be 1.

It can be seen how the power flow is influenced when the no-load phase angle of the PST is changed from
zero to maximum leading phase shift. The highest increase of active power for the same phase shift appears
when a negative reactive power flow exists, i.e., with high capacitive load. An inductive load (positive
reactive power) decreases the effect of the PST.

The reactive power flow is also influenced by the preload condition. The active power has a major impact
on the influence of the PST angle.

Figure 6 —Variation of power flow with the phase angle depending on different
preload conditions

4.5 Types of PSTs

4.5.1 Introduction

The basic principle to obtain a phase shift is to connect a segment of one phase into another phase. Figure 7
shows an elementary arrangement; the phasor diagrams are drawn for a no-load condition. A PST is used
with the exciting winding delta connected. The regulating winding of phase V2–V3 is connected to phase V1
and so on. The scheme has been plotted for subtractive polarity of the windings, and the tap position has
been chosen so that the transformer produces an advanced phase angle. Under the no-load condition, the
regulation is symmetrical, i.e., the absolute values of source and load voltage are the same.

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Figure 7 —Phasor diagram for the no-load condition

Equation (7) through Equation (9) can be used to calculate VS, VL, and V:

ΔV1
VS 1 = V10 + (7)
2

ΔV1
VL1 = V10 − (8)
2

VΔ1 = V20 − V30 (9)

With consideration of these formulas, the phasor diagram can be drawn and absolute values can be
determined using Equation (10) through Equation (15):

VS 1 = VL1 − V1 (10)

α
V10 = V1 × cos (11)
2

α
ΔV1 = V1 × 2 × sin (12)
2

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α
VΔ = V10 × 3 = V1 × 3 × cos (13)
2

I S 1 = I L1 = I1 (14)

ΔV1 α 2 α
I Δ = I L1 × × cos = I L1 × × sin (15)
VΛ 2 3 2

The rated throughput power of the PST is determined with Equation (16):

PS = 3 × V1 × I L1 (16)

whereas the rated design power that determines the size of the unit is determined with Equation (17):

α
P = 3 × ΔV × I = P × 2 × sin (17)
2

In practice, many solutions are possible to design a PST. The user’s electric power system requirements
and the manufacturer’s preference generally determine the design. The major factors determining the type
of PSTs are listed subsequently.

The factors specific to the PST design are as follows:

⎯ PST purchasing price or the first cost

⎯ Cost of capitalization of losses
⎯ Impedance variation across the tap range
⎯ Angle at full load
⎯ Electrical arrangement of on-load tap changers
⎯ On-load tap changers margins on step voltage, rated current, fault current and switching
capacity and duty of changeover selector [advance-retard switch (ARS)]
⎯ Test capability

The factors specific to the project are as follows:

⎯ Foundations and the space requirement in the substation

⎯ Oil spill containment volume
⎯ Shipping weights and shipping dimensions
⎯ Protection and relay costs

These factors decide whether a single-core or a two-core type has to be chosen. These two types are
described in more detail in 4.5.2 through 4.5.3.

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4.5.2 Single-core design

The single-core design is less complex and has fewer winding segments than two-core designs but has
some disadvantages as follows.

The load tap changer (LTC) and the tapped winding are in the line end of the windings and are directly
exposed to the system overvoltages.

The short-circuit impedance of the single-core design PST is very low at tap positions near 0° phase shift.
Therefore, the ratio between external fault currents passing through the PST and rated current may become
very high, especially in systems with low fault current impedance. This has to be taken into account when
selecting the tap changers and when calculating the forces in the windings.

With the design outlined in Figure 7, symmetrical conditions are obtained. The LTC can also be equipped
with a reversing changeover selector. This solution permits changing from an advanced phase angle to a
retard phase angle. With the single-core design, it is generally accepted practice to supply two sets of three
single-pole tap changers: one set connected to the S terminals and the second set connected to the L
terminals. As a simplified solution, it is also possible to use only one half of the tapped winding. But in
such a case, the load voltage increases with respect to the source voltage (Figure 8).

ΔV1
S L
V L1 V S1 = V 10

VΔ

Figure 8 —PST with half tap winding

In the case of a small rated switching capacity (step voltage × through current), a solution with one two-
phase LTC per phase is possible, using an LTC assembly according to Figure 9.

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ARS
S L

K K

LTC

Figure 9 —PST with small switching capability

As another example,7 Figure 10 shows the connection diagram and the phasor diagram of a “delta-
hexagonal” PST. These transformers have LTCs with linear regulation, i.e., without an ARS.

A non-LTC, delta-hexagonal PST can also be configured with a deenergized changeover selector switch
and a deenergized phase-shift selector switch. Because of complications of interconnecting windings, such
a fixed phase-shift design is restricted to only a limited number of phase shifts for system connections.
However, for systems anticipating fewer and infrequent phase-shift changes, such a PST has significant
benefits of simplistic design and operation.

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There are numerous other possibilities, e.g., also designs with deenergized operation.

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Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

S1 L1
S2 L2
S3 L3
S1 L1

L3 S2

S3 L2

Retard position

Figure 10 —Connection diagram and the phasor diagram of a “delta-hexagonal” PST

The single-core design is less complex and has fewer winding segments than two-core designs but has
some disadvantages, as follows:

⎯ The LTC and the tapped winding are in the line end of the windings and are directly exposed to
the system overvoltages. Depending on the overvoltages and isolation levels, the use of internal
surge arresters to protect the tap winding can become useful, or necessary.
⎯ Voltage per tap and current are determined by the phase-angle requirement and rating of the
PST, and they cannot be adjusted to obtain optimum switching conditions. If one of these
parameters exceeds its limit, then the solution would not be possible although the required
switching capability may still be given.

4.5.3 Two-core design

The most commonly used circuit for two-core designs is shown in Figure 11. This configuration consists of
a series unit and an exciting unit. For smaller ratings and lower voltages, two-core PSTs may be built into
one single tank, whereas large ratings and high-voltage PSTs require a two-tank design.

The advantage of a two-core design is the flexibility in selecting the step voltage and the current of the
regulating winding. They can be optimized in line with the voltage and current ratings of the LTC. Because
LTCs have limited current ratings, step voltages per phase, and switching capacity, they are the main
limiting feature for the maximum possible rating of PSTs. More than one LTC per phase may have to be
utilized for very large ratings.

Furthermore three-pole LTCs can be used. For high switching-capacity ratings, three single-pole LTCs may
be used. The LTC insulation level to ground is independent of the system voltage and can generally be kept
low. The potential connection of the regulating winding has to be checked (see 4.6.1), but often it is not
critical and the values are comparable with those of a regulating winding at the neutral end of a common
network transformer.

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Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

Figure 11 —Commonly used circuit for two-core designs

4.6 Special on-load tap changer (OLTC) features

4.6.1 Potential connection of the regulating winding

During the operation of the reversing changeover selector, the regulating winding is temporarily
disconnected from the main winding. Its potential at this moment is determined by the voltages of the
adjacent windings as well as by the coupling capacitances to these windings and to the grounded parts. The
resulting differential voltage exerts stress across the switching distance of the opening changeover selector
contacts. In the case of PSTs having regulation at the line end, high recovery voltages can occur because of
the winding arrangement. The changeover operation takes place in the midposition of the LTC, i.e., when
the tap selectors are in position “K” (see Figure 9).

Figure 12 shows a typical winding arrangement and the resulting phasor diagram. It can be seen that the
recovery voltages are higher than the system line-to-ground voltages of the source and load side. The limit
of the recovery voltages is in the range of 15 kV to 35 kV. This condition has to be taken into account
during design of a PST. One possibility to decrease the recovery voltage is to install shields between the
windings. Each shield must be connected to the “K” point of the corresponding phase.

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Figure 12 —Impact of shields on recovery voltage

Both recovery voltages occurring during reversing changeover selector operation and switched current
resulting from capacitances have limitations. The limit of the magnitude of this current is in the range of a
few hundred milliamps.

Only in special cases, when a third winding with a low voltage level is specified, it may be possible to use
this winding instead of the shields. Shielding has in addition the advantage that it protects the regulating
winding from capacitively transferred transients. If shielding is not possible, then one of the following
solutions must be used to solve the problem:

a) The first way is to connect the tap winding to a fixed potential during the reversing changeover
operation by a fixed ohmic resistor or capacitor, which is usually connected to the middle of the
regulating winding and to the current take-off terminal of the LTC. This solution is not
applicable in every case (especially with arrangements according to Figure 12, when no shields
are used). The connection of resistors or capacitors increases the amount of switched current
because of the small resistance compared with that of the capacitances.
b) The second possibility is to use an ARS as shown in Figure 13. This switch allows the
reversing changeover operation to be carried out in two steps without interruption. The
regulating winding remains connected to a fixed potential during the whole operation. The
limiting parameter for the ARS is the process of commutation, which has to be controlled by
the ARS. It is determined by the commutation of the through current from a small inductive
loop to a larger one.

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Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

ARS

S L
K K

LTC

Figure 13 —Use of ARS

4.6.2 LTC with coarse ARS

By using the ARS for inserting a coarse-regulating winding, the achievable phase angle in one direction can
be enlarged. If a change from advanced to retard position is required, then an additional switching device is
necessary, which has to be designed like an ARS so that the switching can be performed without
interruption of the load current. The ARS has to control the process of commutation that, in this case, is
determined not only by the loop formed by the connecting leads but also by the impedance of the winding
itself. If the reversing operation can be carried out with a deenergized transformer, then an off-circuit tap
changer is sufficient. Figure 14 shows different arrangements with coarse changeover selectors
[Figure 14(a) and Figure 14(b)] and, in addition, the use of two LTCs [Figure 14(c)]. Also, the arrangement
of an ARS for the exciting winding of the series transformer is shown in Figure 14(b).

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Figure 14 —Different arrangements with coarse ARSs

4.6.3 Number of OLTCs required

Table 1 lists the minimum number of LTCs required.

Table 1 —Minimum number of LTCs required

Type Figure Regulation Number of LTCs Number of ARSs
Single core Figure 7 LTC with reversing 3 two-phase units None
changeover selectora or
Figure 5 6 single-phase unitsb
or
Figure 8 3 single-phase unitsc
Figure 13 LTC plus ARS acting as a 6 single-phase units 3–6 unitsd
reversing changeover selector
Figure 10 LTC without changeover 6 single-phase units None
selector (linear regulation)
Two core Figure 11 LTC with reversing 1 three-phase unit None
changeover selector (wye-connected)
or
3 single-phase unitsb
LTC with one coarse winding 1 three-phase unit 1–3 unitsd
Figure 14(a) (wye-connected)
or
3 single-phase unitsb
LTC with several coarse 1 three-phase unit 1–3 unitsd
Figure 14(b) windings (wye-connected)
or
3 single-phase unitsb
1 three-phase unit 1–3 unitsd
Figure 14(c) With two LTCs in series with (wye-connected)
coarse changeover selector or
3 single-phase unitsb
a
The reversing changeover selector is not shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8.
b
Depending on rated switching capacity and through current. The two-phase LTCs have to be connected according to
Figure 9.
c
Asymmetric regulation.
d
Depending on voltage level and through current.

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4.7 Arrangement of more than one PST

4.7.1 Series connection of PSTs

If two or more (n) identical PSTs are connected in series, the phase-shift angles and impedances from each
PST add together to produce a total equivalent phase shift and impedance. The MVA rating of the bank of
series connected PSTs is equivalent to the MVA rating of each PST. For example, two 100 MVA PSTs,
each with a 5° phase shift and 10% impedance connected in series will be equivalent to one 100 MVA PST
with a 10° phase shift and 20% impedance. In case of an outage of one unit, the full current can be
maintained with (n – 1)/n maximum phase angle shift, but possible short-circuit problems have to be
considered because of the diminished impedance.

4.7.2 Parallel connection of PSTs

If two or more (n) identical PSTs are connected in parallel, the impedances from each PST combine in
parallel to provide a reduced total impedance. The MVA rating of the bank of parallel-connected PSTs is
equivalent to the sum of the MVA ratings of all parallel-connected PSTs. For example, two 100 MVA
PSTs, each with a 5° phase shift and 10% impedance connected in parallel, will be equivalent to one
200 MVA PST with a 5° phase shift and 5% impedance.

Consideration should also be given to circulating currents that may occur during tap changes when
operating two PSTs in parallel.

4.8 Design criteria

4.8.1 Phase angle

The rated phase angle is defined under no-load conditions. However, it should be noted that the unit is
unlikely to operate at this phase angle under load in the advanced position because of the effect of the
voltage drop in the unit. In the retard position, the no-load phase angle should not be exceeded (unless the
unit has been designed for that), as overexcitation will occur in parts of the PST (see also 4.8.4).

4.8.2 Dielectric design of the two-core type

The transmission of transient voltages in the two-core design is rather complex. When applying impulse
tests to either the S or the L terminals of the series transformer, the connected exciting winding of the main
transformer will also be exposed to a high voltage. There may be high-voltage oscillations of the
connecting leads depending on the capacitive voltage control of the series winding. High voltages may be
transferred to other windings coupled to the series winding or to the excitation winding. Therefore, rather
complex computer models may be required to compute the transient voltages for this configuration.

4.8.3 Special considerations for a multiple-tank design

When the two-core design is used with multiple tanks, special precautions must be taken to design
connections between the tanks. As illustrated in Figure 11, the connection operates at the system voltage
level so that the leads must be insulated for the overvoltages that may occur under both transients and
power frequency conditions. A short circuit between the connections of the two units has to be considered
as an internal fault, which would cause severe damage or even destroy the PST. A short-circuit proof

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Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

design for this special case would result, if it were possible at all, in a significant increase in cost.
Therefore, it is strongly recommended to use metal enclosures to protect the connections against lightning
strokes and possible sources of short circuit.

4.8.4 Overload conditions (loading above nameplate rating)

Overloading of a PST increases the internal phase angle [see Equation (2)] and consequently also the load
phase angle *(r) in the retard position [see Equation (4)]. This may result in a load phase angle that exceeds
the maximum rated no-load phase angle. The voltage across the regulating winding and consequently also
the voltage per step of a single-core type as well as the voltage across the series winding of a two-core type
will exceed the rated voltage. Furthermore, in a two-core design, the main transformer will experience a
certain degree of overexcitation with the same consequences for the regulating winding. The degree
depends on the ratio of the impedances of series and main transformer.

It must—besides the effect that parts of the core(s) may be overfluxed—therefore also be checked whether
the parameters voltage per step, current, and switching capability are still within the limits of the LTC
design. See Jarman et al. [B19].8

5. Service conditions
PSTs conforming to this guide will be suitable for operation at rated voltage and rated kVA as shown in 5.1
through 5.4.

5.1 Usual service conditions

These conditions shall be as stated in 4.1.1 through 4.1.7 and 4.1.9 in IEEE Std C57.12.00TM-2006, or
IEC 60076-1. In item a) of 4.1.6.1 in IEEE Std C57.12.00-2006, the word “secondary” shall mean the L
terminals of the PST.

a) The purchaser of the PST shall specify the switching arrangements that will be used to place the
PST in and out of service. This shall include breaker or switch operations resulting from faults
external and internal to the PST.
b) The PST shall be suitable for energization from either the S or L terminals.
c) The PST shall be capable of transferring rated kVA with the electrical source of power
connected to the S or L terminals. Limited power transfer in the retard position has to be
considered.
d) Seismic requirements shall be as specified in IEEE Std 693TM. The purchaser’s specifications
shall include the seismic zone and the foundation. The manufacturer shall provide for
differential motion between the two tanks, if used, and for remotely mounted radiators as
applicable.
e) The manufacturer of the PST shall make provisions for differential alignments that will occur
when two tanks are connected. The foundation tolerance shall be defined by agreement between
the purchaser and the manufacturer.
f) Unless specified otherwise, the PST shall be manufactured for operation in the bypassed state
with the source and load bushing connected through bus work. This shall require special
consideration in designing for lightning and switching impulses. This condition will require

8
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex A.

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Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

additional testing with the terminals connected, as in service, to demonstrate that the insulation
level meets the specified BIL.

5.2 Loading at other than rated conditions

This subclause shall be the same as 4.2 of IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-7 with the exception that
additional limits must be observed for retard operation under overload. These limits must be defined by the
manufacturer and agreed on by the purchaser prior to completion of the PST design.

5.3 Unusual service conditions

The unusual conditions shall be the same as those listed in 4.3 and 4.3.1 through 4.3.3 of
IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-1. Additional unusual service conditions that may apply to PSTs are
discussed in the subsequent sections.

5.3.1 Operation with two or more PSTs in parallel or in series

The purchaser must provide the manufacturer with all nameplate and test data of the existing PSTs and
applicable system information necessary to design the PSTs for proper load sharing. The purchaser must
specify in detail to the manufacturer the LTC’s controls that will be provided by the purchaser. If the
manufacturer provides the LTC’s controls, the purchaser shall provide the control scheme used with any
existing PSTs to the manufacturer to enable the manufacture to supply a compatible system.

5.3.2 Operation of PSTs in series with series capacitor banks

If the PST is to be operated in series with a series capacitor bank, this operating condition shall be specified
in the purchaser’s specification. The operating conditions and the protection scheme used shall also be
included in the specifications for consideration in design to prevent series resonance.

5.3.3 Unbalanced current flow through the PST

The purchaser must provide the details of operating conditions that will subject the PSTs to unbalanced
phase currents and voltages that may exceed allowable standard limits for design consideration of the PSTs.
The following are examples of operating conditions that could produce such problems:

a) Unbalances resulting from operation of parallel transmission lines in close proximity to the PST
connected lines. Unequal line transpositions cause unbalanced voltage at the PSTs and unequal
current flow through the series windings.
b) Single-pole operation of the circuit breakers following line faults where single pole reclosing is
utilized.

5.3.4 Transient recovery voltages

Transient voltage may exist when circuit breakers are operated. These conditions may occur between the
PST and the circuit breaker.

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5.3.5 Surge protection

Any condition where the PST may operate without surge protection applied at all S and L terminals.

5.4 Protection

The protection scheme recommended for PSTs is similar to that for power transformers with one notable
exception: differential relaying. In general, transformer differential relays are designed to allow for a
difference between the primary and secondary currents of the transformer of at least 10% because of the
voltage taps. This is done by means of restraint windings (or logic) that desensitize the relay during high
through fault currents. For a PST with a phase-angle difference of 25° between the source and load
currents, the current difference would be approximately 43%, so a special differential scheme is required.
In 5.4.1, differential schemes for PSTs will be briefly discussed with emphasis on the PST requirements.
Ground protection is also included because of its close association with differential protection. For a more
detailed discussion of differential and ground protection, see Applied Protective Relaying [B3], Ibrahim
and Stacosm [B11], Sen and Craig [B32], Li [B22], Ibrahim et al. [B10], Plumptre [B31], and Brown et al.
[B6]. Other types of protection are discussed in 5.4.2.

5.4.1 Differential and ground protection

The complete current transformer (CT) requirements must be determined and the purchaser must agree to
the locations before the design can be finalized because internal “buried” CTs are often required. Protection
schemes are different for single-core and two-core type constructions.

5.4.1.1 Single-core arrangement

A differential scheme for the single-core arrangements shown in Figure 7 and Figure 8 should provide
primary differential protection that will not misoperate because of PST core saturation. A three-phase
transformer differential relay is required with three restraint elements per phase. It is preferable that the
CT’s have the same ratings and ratios, although the relay can typically compensate for some mismatch.

5.4.1.2 Two-core arrangement

The most common differential scheme for the two-core arrangement shown in Figure 11 is shown in
Figure 15 and Figure 16. There are two sets of differential protection. Figure 15 shows the primary set and
Figure 16 the secondary set. The two sets provide differential protection with redundancy.

The primary differential relay (Figure 15, 87P) requires a set of CTs toward the neutral end of the primary
winding of the exciting unit. These will probably be inside the tank. It is preferable that these CTs have the
same rating and ratio as the high-side CTs, although the differential relay can compensate for some
mismatch. This scheme is not affected by PST core saturation. A ground relay (51N1) is usually installed in
the neutral of the primary winding of the exciting unit to provide sensitive protection for ground faults near
the neutral. It will see current during ground faults on the system. The amount of current will depend on the
sequence network impedance. If the exciting unit is of shell form construction, the zero sequence current
will be relatively high. However, if it is of core form construction or if the secondary circuits provide a path
for zero sequence currents because of voltage regulating windings on the exciting unit (see Applied
Protective Relaying [B3], and Sen and Craig, p. 7 [B32]), then the zero sequence impedance will be much
lower and 51N1 must coordinate with line side ground relays. The 51N1 relay is also subject to false
operation because of the inrush current when the exciting unit is energized. To prevent this from
happening, the relay must be desensitized or a relay with a second harmonic restraint used (see Plumptre, p.
5 [B31]). The associated CT may be external to the tank.

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Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

Figure 15 —Primary differential relay

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Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

K
2
(I SA + I LA )
I SA I LA
A n1 n1 A

I SB
K
2
(I SB + I LB ) I LB
B B

K
2
(I SC + I LC )
I SC I LC
C C

K [(I SA + I LA ) − (I SC − I LC )]
2 K
2
[(I SC + I LC ) − (I SB − I LB )]
K [(I + I LB ) − (I SA − I LA )]
2 SB I EA
I SA − I SC I LA − I LC
n1 n2 n1
I SB − I SA I LB − I LA
n1 I EB I EC n1
I SC − I SB I LC − I LB
n1 n1

K
2
[(I SA + I LA ) − (I SC + I LC )] K
2
[(I SB + I LB ) − (I SA + I LA )]
n2 n2

K
2
[(I SC + I LC ) − (I SB + I LB )]
n2

R R R R R R R R R

87S 87S 87S

A B C
OP OP OP

Figure 16 —Secondary differential relay

The secondary differential relay (Figure 16, 87S) requires a set of CTs in the neutral of the secondary of the
exciting unit. They will also most likely be inside the tank. The ratio of these CTs will be determined by the
ratio (K) of the series unit, as shown in Figure 16. The differential relay can compensate for some CT
mismatch. The rating of the CTs should closely match the high-side CTs. A three-phase transformer
differential relay is required with three restraint elements per phase. The integrity of this scheme depends
on the value of “K” remaining constant ~(the series unit not saturating). Because the voltage rating of the
series unit is considerably smaller than rated phase-to-ground voltage, it is possible that it might saturate
during high through faults (see p. 397 of Ibrahim and Stacom [B10]). If series unit saturation is a problem,
then desensitizing the secondary relay system is required. A ground relay (50N2) is usually installed in the
neutral of the exciting unit secondary winding. This relay can be set sensitive because there should be
current in it only during a fault in the exciting unit secondary circuit. The associated CT may be external to
the tank.

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Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

5.4.2 Other types of protection

5.4.2.1 Sudden-pressure (rapid rate of rise) relaying

Sudden-pressure relays protect for arcing faults. It is common practice to have one or more sudden-pressure
relays for each oil-filled tank and separate compartments; the number of relays depends on the oil volume.
The PST manufacturer should recommend the quantity, location, and type of sudden-pressure relays and
the settings if not specified by the purchaser. Also, Buchholz relays will protect for oil displacement.

5.4.2.2 Pressure-relief device

Each oil-filled tank and separate oil-filled compartment shall be provided with a pressure-relief device. It is
common practice to have more than one pressure-relief device on large tanks. The number of pressure-
relief devices should be determined by the manufacturer.

5.4.2.3 Gas accumulation relay

Gas bubbles generated in the oil will migrate toward the top of the oil compartment. The use of a device to
accumulate the gas and cause an alarm or trip is recommended for each compartment.

6. Rating data
In general, the rating data for PSTs should be in accordance with the requirements for power transformers
as covered in IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-1 with the following exceptions or additions.

6.1 Polarity, angular displacement, and terminal markings

6.1.1 Terminal markings unique to PSTs

The designations H and X shall not be used and shall be replaced by S and L to indicate the Source and
Load. The S terminals shall be marked S1, S2, S3, and (if applicable) S0. The L terminals shall be marked L1,
L2, L3, and (if applicable) L0. Y and Z designations shall be used for additional windings that are brought
out of the tank.

6.1.2 Enclosed throat connection terminal markings

Enclosed throat winding terminal connections shall be marked in any manner that will permit convenient
reference and shall not be confused with the markings of the external transformer terminals.

6.2 Impedance

Impedance shall be in accordance with IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-1 with the following additions.

26
Copyright © 2011 IEEE. All rights reserved.

6.2.1 General

Rated impedance shall be at zero phase-shift connections.

6.2.2 Change in impedance with phase-angle regulation

The impedance of a PST can vary substantially over its range of phase-angle regulation. The user must
specify the acceptable ranges of impedances, and the manufacturer shall calculate and provide a matrix of
impedances as required by the user. The extent of test verification of impedance values other than rated
impedance should be specified and agreed upon by the purchaser and the manufacturer.

6.3 Name plates

Nameplates shall be in accordance with IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-1 with the following addition.

The nameplate of the PST shall show the phase shift in degrees from the S to the L terminals starting at the
zero phase-shift tap and for each tap position in the advance and retard direction while operating at no load.
The nameplate shall also show the phase shift in degrees from the S to the L terminals while operating at
maximum rated KVA output at unity power factor at the S terminal for all tap positions, which result in
acceptable service conditions. Intermediary phase shifts at varying loads may be specified by the purchaser
for inclusion on the nameplate.

The user may request impedance changes be indicated on the nameplate for any tap position.

7. Construction
In general, construction requirements for PSTs should be in accordance with the requirements for power
transformers, as covered in IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-1 and other applicable ANSI/IEEE or IEC
standards based on kV and kVA ratings, with the following exceptions or additions.

7.1 Enclosed throat connections

Enclosed throat connections in fully assembled condition must meet the pressure and vacuum requirements
of PST tanks for all designs that subject the enclosed throat connection to the same operating pressures and
vacuum levels as the transformer tank.

7.2 Liquid insulation and preservation system

Liquid insulation and preservation systems shall be in accordance with IEEE Std C57.12.00 or
IEC 60076-1 with the following addition.

7.2.1 Two tank designs with enclosed liquid-filled throat connection

Enclosed liquid-filled throat connections may be either sealed from each tank or opened to the insulating
liquid from one or both tanks. Enclosed throat connections shall be designed for installation or removal

without the need of jacking or moving the transformer tanks, and it shall accommodate thermal expansion
and contraction of the throat assembly and both tanks.

For a sealed throat system that isolates the insulating liquid, the throat connections require a separate
conservator system.

For a system where the throats are not directly connected to a main tank and the isolation of the insulating
liquid in different compartments is not important, the throats may be connected to the conservator system
of the main tank. If this approach is used, then the user should be aware that the use of oil and gas analysis
to isolate problems will be complicated.

For throat connections that place barriers between both the tanks and the throat, the throat shall be equipped
with the following accessories:

⎯ Gas accumulation relay

⎯ Pressure relief device/relay
⎯ Liquid filling and draining valves
⎯ Sudden pressure relay
⎯ Liquid level gauge

8. Short-circuit characteristics

8.1 Short-circuit requirements

8.1.1 General

PSTs shall comply with the short-circuit requirements of IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-5, unless
otherwise agreed on by the purchaser and the manufacturer.

8.1.2 Transformer categories

The kVA rating to be considered for determining the category should be the equivalent to the rating
according to IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-1.

8.1.3 Short-circuit current magnitude

The manufacturer shall determine the most onerous conditions for short circuit on every winding or active
part in accordance with IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-5. These conditions should take into account the
large impedance swings that can occur as the tap position is changed from the extreme positions to the mid
position. Since the system short-circuit levels are critical to the design of PSTs, the user shall specify the
maximum system short-circuit fault levels expected throughout the life of the unit.

If a short-circuit test is performed, it shall be done in accordance with IEEE Std C57.12.90TM or
IEC 60076-5. The test shall be carried out on the tap position that produces the most severe stresses in each
winding. This may require more than a single test depending on the type of construction.

For two-core PSTs, this usually requires a test on the zero phase-shift position, as this position involves
only the series transformer and a second test on a position to be agreed on between the customer and the
manufacturer.

9. Control system

9.1 Control equipment and accessories

Control devices to facilitate manual and automatic control of the load tap changing equipment shall be
provided.

The control system of a PST includes a sensing apparatus to provide a signal proportioned to the system
real power flow through the transformer. For this purpose, positive (+) values of power flow relate to an
exchange defined as forward power flow, i.e., power from normal S terminals to normal L terminals.
Similarly, negative (–) values of power flow relate to an exchange defined as reverse power flow, i.e.,
power from normal L terminals to normal S terminals.

The control system also includes a control device to interpret the input of the sensing apparatus, relate the
input to conditions desired by the operator, and command the tap changer of the PST automatically to
function to hold the power flow thereby required.

The total control system is usually furnished as a complete package with the transformer; however, the
“stand-alone” nature of the control system makes it appropriate to consider the control system in a unified
context.

9.1.1 Enclosure

A weather-resistant cabinet shall be provided for housing the automatic control and related devices. The
cabinet shall be specified by the user.

9.2 Requirements

9.2.1 Environmental

The control must withstand –40 °C to 80 °C control enclosure temperature, relative humidity from 0% to
100%, and altitude of up to 3000 m (9900 ft) without loss of control.

9.2.2 Set point adjustment ranges

The default device shall accommodate parameter set point adjustment as follows:

NOTE—The base power (1.0 pu power) will be scaled as required based on the transformer rating.

a) Power flow adjustable from at least –2.0 pu to 2.0 pu

b) Power flow bandwidth adjustable from at least 0.025 pu to 0.25 pu
c) Fixed time delay adjustable from 0 s to at least 120 s

9.2.3 Accuracy

The control system error shall be 1% or less. The accuracy is based on the combined performance of the
sensing apparatus (including instrument transformers, transducers, or other means of sensing as required)
and the control device.

For determining the accuracy of the control system, the percent error is based on the following reference
conditions: ambient temperature of 25 °C, rated system frequency, no harmonics present on the line, and
the PST delivering rated kVA at rated voltage.

9.2.3.1 Accuracy determination criteria

The errors to be included in the determination of the accuracy of the control system are the maximum plus
(+) error and the maximum minus (–) error for each of the following. The greater magnitude of the sum of
the positive percent errors or the sum of the negative percent errors shall constitute the stated accuracy of
the control system:

a) Error of the control system due to the ambient temperature. The control system is operated in its
intended configuration and environment as pertains to the control enclosure. The use of
supplemental control enclosure heaters must be reported, if used. The enclosure temperature is
varied in the range of –40 °C to +65 °C while holding the transformer kVA and power system
frequency at the reference conditions.
b) Error in the control system due to the system frequency. The power system frequency to which the
control system sensing apparatus is connected is varied in the range of rated power system
frequency ±0.25% while holding the transformer kVA and the ambient temperature at reference
conditions.
c) Error in the control system due to the power throughput of the PST. The power throughput of the
PST to which the sensing apparatus is connected is varied in the range of –2.0 pu to +2.0 pu (where
1.0 pu is the rated kVA of the PST), while holding the ambient temperature and the power system
frequency at the reference conditions.

9.2.3.2 Errors for set point marking deviation of control device

The accuracy determination criteria allow for no error in the display of the control device set points.

9.2.4 Ancillary requirements

The following ancillary components, accessories, or functionality will be provided as part of the control
system:

a) Means for display of particular parameters of interest:

⎯ Phase angle of power system voltage, S terminals relative to L terminals
⎯ System kVA throughput
⎯ Power throughput, including direction as forward flow or reverse flow
⎯ Reactive throughput, including direction as forward flow or reverse flow
⎯ Tap changer operations counter
⎯ Tap changer tap position

b) Status alarms:
⎯ Control self-check—discrepancy detected
⎯ Tap changer at end of Advance tap range
⎯ Tap changer at end of Retard tap range
⎯ Control system unable to accomplish desired (set point) system power flow
c) Mode selection
⎯ Off/local manual control/automatic control selector switch
⎯ Local manual control—advance/retard control switch

9.3 Test code for control systems

9.3.1 Design tests

9.3.1.1 Determination of accuracy of control system

9.3.1.1.1 Test for error in power due to control system inaccuracy

This design test is made at rated power system frequency ±0.01 Hz and at 25 ºC ± 1 ºC. Record the
difference in control system power flow recognition to the actual system power flow in range of –1.5 pu to
+1.5 pu in steps of 0.25 pu.

9.3.1.1.2 Test for error in power due to ambient temperature

This test is made at 1.0 pu forward power flow ±0.01 pu and rated system frequency ±0.01 Hz. Record the
difference in system power flow recognition to actual system power flow at ambient temperature of –40 °C
to +60 °C in steps of 20 °C.

9.3.1.1.3 Test for error in power due to power system frequency

This test is made at 1.0 pu forward power flow ±0.01 pu and at 25 ºC ± 1 ºC. Record the difference in
control system power flow recognition to actual system power flow at system frequency of rated frequency
–0.25%, at rated frequency and at rated frequency +0.25%.

9.3.1.1.4 Total control system error

For each of the three tests above, note the greatest positive error recorded and the greatest negative error
recorded. (Note that the greatest positive error or greatest negative error for a given test may be zero.) Sum
the three positive errors and sum the three negative errors. The error of the control system is taken to be the
greater of the magnitudes of the two errors summed in this manner.

9.3.1.2 Surge withstand capability (SWC) test

The SWC test is a design test for the control device in its operating environment. To pass this test, the
control device shall continue to operate properly after the test.

Refer to IEEE Std C37.90.1TM-1989.

9.3.2 Routine tests

9.3.2.1 Applied voltage test

The control device shall withstand a voltage of 1500 V at rated system frequency from all terminals to case
for 1 min. The test shall be performed with the control device disconnected from the system. After the test,
it shall be determined that no change in calibration or performance has occurred.

9.3.2.2 Operational test

All features of the control device and its peripherals will be operated and checked for verification of proper
functioning. The control is also calibrated at this point.

10. Testing of PSTs

10.1 General

Unless otherwise specified, all tests carried out at the factory should be made in accordance with
IEEE Std C57.12.90 or IEC 60076-3. Additional tests, particular to PSTs, are defined in 10.2. Because the
method of testing PSTs is dependent on the design, the testing methods will be mutually agreed on by the
user and manufacturer.

10.1.1 Test setup for PSTs

10.1.1.1 Resonant frequency and transient voltage tests

These tests are normally performed on the core and coil assembly in air. However, they can also be
performed inside the tank filled with oil and fitted with temporary bushings to give access to required test
points. For a two-core design in one or more tanks, the windings must be interconnected as for impulse
testing.

These tests are intended to verify the transient voltages and natural frequencies at various points in the
windings, at all tap combinations, and at connections that can be compared and evaluated with studies.

10.1.1.2 Temperature tests and loss distribution

In most cases, temporary bushings must be installed for connections to windings, which are not normally
accessible, to determine the various resistances for the temperature tests and to determine the losses and the
distribution of these losses.

The location of these temporary bushings depends on the design and winding configuration and is subject
to agreement between user and manufacturer.

For two-tank designs, the tanks may be separate to determine the losses in the various cores and windings
and the temperature test. This information will be provided by the manufacturer to the user during
preliminary discussions.

10.1.1.3 Dielectric test

For dielectric tests, each tank with its corresponding core and windings should be connected electrically
and mechanically together as for the service condition. In most cases, temporary bushings must be installed
on lower voltage windings to perform the ANSI/IEEE-standard induced test on the higher source and load
side windings.

10.1.1.4 Test windings

In very high voltage PSTs, it is sometimes necessary to install an auxiliary winding next to the core for
shielding purposes. This auxiliary winding can then be used for performing the induced test through the use
of temporary bushings. The presence of these windings should be shown on the nameplate.

10.2 Special tests for PSTs

10.2.1 Special dielectric test

When a bypass switch is installed, the following two special dielectric tests should be specified by the user.

10.2.1.1 Special lightning impulse test

A special lightning impulse test shall be applied individually to each phase with the L and S side terminals
connected together. The untested terminals should be grounded separately through resistors. The neutral
terminal(s) shall be grounded through shunts for current monitoring. In some cases, it is desirable to
perform the tests with the S or L terminals floating. The test shall be performed on tap positions mutually
agreed on by the user and the manufacturer.

10.2.1.2 Special switching impulse test

A special switching impulse test shall be applied to each phase with the L and S side terminals under test
being tied together. The other untested terminals are connected together, floating and connected to a
voltage divider. The neutral terminal(s) shall be solidly grounded through a shunt for current monitoring.
This test only applies to PSTs rated 345 kV and above, or as required by the user.

10.2.2 Measurement of phasor group and no-load phase angle

The phase angle of a PST is not normally measured directly but is calculated from the triangle formed by
the voltage across the series winding and the voltage across the shunt winding, which are at right angles.
See Figure 11 for a reference.

By applying a low voltage three-phase supply to the S terminals as VS1, VS2, and VS3 and measuring the
designated magnitude of each voltage, the phase angle on each tap may be determined with Equation (18):

a) The series voltage measured between the S terminal S1 and the L terminal L1 = VS1–L1
b) The supply phase voltages measured between S terminal S1 and the neutral N = VS–N
c) The load phase voltage measured between L terminal L1 and the neutral N = VL–N
d) The voltage between S terminals S1 and S2 = VS1–S2
e) The voltage between the S terminal S1 and the L terminal L2 = VS1–L2

= arccos((VSN2 + VLN2 – VS1–L12) / (2 × VSN × VLN)) (18)

The phase angle is advanced if VS1–S2 > VS1–L2 and retarded if VS1–L2 > VS1–S2.

11. Tolerances

11.1 General

The tolerances should be as per IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-1. Additional tolerances specific to PST
should be as follows.

11.2 Tolerances for ratio of series and exciting units

For two-core PSTs, the voltage ratios of the series or of the exciting unit is a design parameter as the leads
corresponding to those windings are not usually brought out.

For PSTs with constant modulus shift such as described in 4.5.2, it is not practical to guarantee a constant
voltage ratio as the no-load voltage is subject to change depending on the phase-angle shift.

11.3 Tolerance for phase angle and impedance

Phase angle and impedance tolerance will be in accordance with IEEE Std C57.12.00 or IEC 60076-1 for
two-winding transformers. In cases where PSTs are expected to be paralleled, the angle and impedance
tolerances should be established by agreement between the user and the manufacturer.

11.3.1 Tolerance for phase angle

The tolerance for phase-angle shift at no-load on all tap positions should be within 1% of the respective
rated phase-angle shift.

11.3.2 Tolerance for impedance

The impedance should generally be within the specified impedance range of a minimum and a maximum
over the full range of tap positions. The user and manufacturer shall agree on the tolerance.

12. Bid document checklist

The following is a “checklist” on what should be covered in a bid specification for a PST that is not
normally included in typical transformer bid specifications. This list should not be considered all inclusive
but used only as a guide. It should also be noted that no technical definitions, detailed requirements, or
standards are given in this clause; this type of detailed information will be found in the other referenced
clauses.

12.1 Nontechnical information

The following nontechnical information should be presented in the commercial part of the bid document.

12.1.1 Installation supervisor

The buyer should state in the bid document if they will or will not employ the supplier’s installation
supervisor.

12.2 Technical information

The following information should be included in the PST specifications.

12.2.1 Required operating conditions

Various phase-angle regulations and power ratings that are required for consideration should be clearly
defined. Specific phase angle versus power factor requirements should be clearly specified.

12.2.2 Required overloading conditions

With respect to 4.8.4 and 5.1 through 5.3, the required overload condition and the kind of operation
(advance or retard phase angle) should be clearly stated. Especially for the retard phase-angle operation,
overload requirements may have a significant impact on the size of the PST.

12.2.3 Tap-changer requirements

The following detailed tap-changer requirements should be specified:

⎯ Number of load tap changer positions

⎯ Maximum phase shift under load and no-load conditions
⎯ Anticipated short-term rating beyond nameplate

⎯ Impedance requirements at various tap-changer positions

See 4.6 for additional details.

12.2.4 Grounding requirements

The grounding requirements for the transformer core(s), neutral, and tank(s) should be specified.

12.3 Special requirements or conditions

Special requirements or conditions should be specified for the PST supplier in the technical specification
clause of the bid document.

12.3.1 Size and weight restrictions

Any size or weight restrictions of the roadway, the structures on the roadway, or the site should be
specified by the user. Generally, PST suppliers verify this information.

12.3.2 Cooling method and radiator type preferred

The acceptable cooling methods and the type of radiator or cooler installation desired should be specified.

12.3.3 Preferred main tank construction

The type of tanks and their preferred construction details, such as split tanks or the preference of a flexible
connection between them, should be clearly specified.

See 7.2.1 for additional information.

12.3.4 Testing requirements

The following testing requirements should be specified:

⎯ Special lightning impulse test

⎯ Special switching impulse test

See 10.2 for additional information.

12.4 Additional information

The following additional pertinent information should be supplied to the PST supplier in an appendix of the
tender document.

12.4.1 Special standards requirement

Any special or internal company standards that the buyer wishes the supplier to meet should be included in
an appendix of the bid document.

Annex A

(informative)

Bibliography

Bibliographical references are resources that provide additional or helpful material but do not need to be
understood or used to implement this standard. Reference to these resources is made for informational use
only.

[B1] ANSI C57.12.10-1997, American National Standard for Transformers—230 kV and Below 833/958
Through 8333/10 417 kVA, Single-Phase, and 750/862 Through 60 000/80 000/100 000 kVA, Three-Phase
Without Load Tap Changing; and 3750/4687 Through 60 000/80 000/100 000 kVA with Load Tap
Changing—Safety Requirement.9
[B2] ANSI C92.1-1982, American National Standard Insulation Coordination.
[B3] Applied Protective Relaying. Coral Springs, FL: Westinghouse Electric Corporation, 1982, pp. 8–22.
[B4] Bladow, J. and Montoya, A., “Experiences with parallel EHV phase shifting transformers,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Transaction No. 91 WM 020-8 PWRD, pp. 1096–1100, July 1991.
[B5] Blume, L. F., et al., Transformer Engineering, Ch. XIV. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1951,
pp. 399–402.
[B6] Brown, F. B., Frere, G. R., Lundquist, T. G., Thallam, R. S., Seitlinger, W., Trummer, E. R.,
Hansen, N. W., and Moore, H., “The first 525 kV phase shifting transformer conception to service,” Doble
Proceedings of the Sixty-Fourth Annual Conference of Doble Clients, 1997.
[B7] Central Station Engineers, Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book, 4th ed., 150,
Chapter 5, Part XIII. East Pittsburgh, PA: Westinghouse Electric Corp., , 1964, pp. 122–124.
[B8] Cochrane, I. C., “Effects of supply, converter and load variabilities on harmonic mitigation using a
phase-shifting transformer,” Proceedings of the 29th Universities Power Engineering Conference,
Sept. 1994.
[B9] Haberl, H. W. and Morehouse, C. E., “Phase Angle Control Benefits Power System Inter-
connection,” IEEE Conference Paper #CP58-883, Mar. 25, 1958.
[B10] Ibrahim, M. A. and Stacom, F. P., “Phase angle regulating transformer protection,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 394–413, Jan. 1994.
[B11] Ibrahim, M. A. and Stacom, F. P., “Protection of the East Garden City 345 kV phase angle
regulating transformers,” 46th Annual Georgia Tech Protective Relaying Conference, Atlanta, GA,
Apr. 29–May 1, 1992.
[B12] IEEE Std C57.12.70TM-2000, IEEE Standard Terminal Markings and Connections for Distribution
and Power Transformers.10,11
[B13] IEEE Std C57.19.00TM-2004, IEEE Standard General Requirements and Test Procedure for Power
Apparatus Bushings.

9
ANSI publications are available from the Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor,
New York, NY 10036, USA (http://www.ansi.org/).
10
The IEEE standards or products referred to in this clause are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Incorporated.
11
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854-
4141, USA (http://standards.ieee.org/).

[B14] IEEE Std C57.19.01TM-1991, IEEE Standard Performance Characteristics and Dimensions for
Outdoor Apparatus Bushings.
[B15] IEEE Std C57.19.100TM-1995, IEEE Guide for Application of Power Apparatus Bushings.
[B16] IEEE Std C57.91TM-1995, IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil Immersed Transformers.
[B17] IEEE Std C57.93TM-1995, IEEE Guide for Installation of Liquid-Immersed Power Transformers.
[B18] IEEE Std C57.131TM-1995, Standard Requirements for Load Tap Changers.
[B19] Jarman, P., Hynes, P., Bickley, T., Darwin, A., Hayward, H., and Thomas, N., “The Specification
and Application of Large Quadrature Boosters to Restrict Post-Fault Power Flows,” paper A2-207, CIGRE
Session 2006, Paris, France, 2006.
[B20] Kraemer, A. and Ruff, J., “Transformer for phase angle regulation considering the selection of on-
load tap-changers,” IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 518–525, Apr. 1998.
[B21] Lee, K. and Poon, K., “Statistical switching overvoltage analysis of the first B. C. hydro phase
shifting transformer using the electromagnetic transient program,” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,
vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 1054–1060, Nov. 1990.
[B22] Li, H. J., “Protective relaying for phase angle regulator,” Western Protective Relay Conference,
Spokane, WA, Oct. 20–22, 1975.
[B23] Linhe, S. and Spencer, L. B., “Representation of phase-shifting transformers on AC network
analyzers,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Part III, vol. 80, pp. 374–379, Aug. 1961.
[B24] MacDonald, J., “Current Activities in Flexible AC Transmission Systems,” 92-TH0465-5 PWR,
Apr. 1992.
[B25] MacDonald, J., “Present Phase-Angle Regulating Transformer Technology,” ABB Power T&D
Company, Inc., Muncie, IN, Sept. 24, 1991.
[B26] March, W. Jr. and Smith, H. S., “Parallel phase shifters require special protection,” Transmission &
Distribution, vol. 39, no. 8, pp. 46–49, Aug. 1987.
[B27] Mihalic, R. and Zunko, P., “Phase-shifting transformer—a tool for fast load flow control in electric
power systems,” Elektrotehniski Vestnik, vol. 62, no. 2, pp. 91–96, Feb. 1995.
[B28] Mihalic, R. and Zunko, P., “Phase-shifting transformers with fixed phase between terminal voltage
and voltage boost: Tools for transient stability margin enhancement,” IEEE Proceedings Generating,
Transmission and Distribution, vol. 142, no. 3, pp. 257–262, May 1995.
[B29] Patel, B. K., Smith, H. S., Hewes, T. S., Jr., and Marsh, W. J., “Application of phase shifting
transformers for Dainiel-McKnight 500-kV interconnection,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol.
PWRD-1, no. 3, pp. 167–173, July 1986.
[B30] Phase Shifters Control Power Flows—Electrical World, vol. 179, no. 3. New York: McGraw-Hill
Inc., Feb. 1, 1973, p. 48.
[B31] Plumptre, P. F., “Nelway substation phase shifting transformer protection,” Western Protective
Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, Oct. 23–25, 1990.
[B32] Sen, P. K. and Craig, B. R., “Application and protection considerations of large phase shifting
transformers,” Proceedings of the American Power Conference, vol. 51, pp. 442–447, Apr. 1989.
[B33] Trummer, E. R., “Phase-shifting transformer principles,” APDA Meeting, May 2, 1995.
[B34] Trummer, E. R., “Transformer’s principles,” PEA Electrical Equipment Committee Presentation,
Winter 1995 Meeting, Feb. 1995.
[B35] Xing, K. and Kusic, G. “Damping subsynchronous resonance by phase shifters,” IEEE Transactions
on Energy Conversion, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 344–350, Sept. 1989.

Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIV OF ALABAMA-BIRMINGHAM. Downloaded on December 09,2012 at 11:08:48 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.

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IEEE Guide For The Application, Specification, and Testing of Phase-Shifting Transformers

Uploaded by

IEEE Guide For The Application, Specification, and Testing of Phase-Shifting Transformers

Uploaded by

IEEE Power & Energy Society

IEEE Guide for the Application,

Approved 16 June 2011

IEEE-SA Standards Board

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

Copyright © 2011 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-6691-9 STD97130

Secretary, IEEE-SA Standards Board

⎯ Organizations responsible for the application and specification of phase-shifting transformers

This guide is designed to help organizations:

This guide is intended to satisfy the following objectives:

⎯ Figure 1, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 7, and Figure 11 were improved.

Laws and regulations

Updating of IEEE documents

Edgar R. Trummer, Chair

Rajendra Ahuja Everett Hager Sam Perkins

H. Jin Sim, Chair

Carlo Arpino Axel Kraemer Jean-Christophe Riboud

William J. Ackerman Randall Groves Gustav Preininger

Richard H. Hulett, Chair

Masayuki Ariyoshi Paul Houzé Jon Rosdahl

Satish Aggarwal, NRC Representative

4. Application and theory of PSTs.................................................................................................................. 4

5. Service conditions .................................................................................................................................... 21

8. Short-circuit characteristics ...................................................................................................................... 28

9. Control system .......................................................................................................................................... 29

10. Testing of PSTs ...................................................................................................................................... 32

11. Tolerances .............................................................................................................................................. 34

Annex A (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 38

IEC 60076-1, Power Transformers—Part 1: General.1

IEC 60076-5, Power Transformers—Part 5: Ability to Withstand Short Circuit.

4. Application and theory of PSTs

4.2 Basic principle of application—advanced and retard phase angle

Figure 1 —Load side power factor of 1

Figure 2 —Advanced phase-shifting angle

4.3 PST under load

Figure 3 —Demonstration of load conditions

I L × X × cos ϕ L − I L × R × sin ϕ L ZT × cos ϕ L

*(a) =  –  is phase-shift angle (loaded) advance (3)

*(r) = –( + ) is phase-shift angle (loaded) retard (4)

4.4 Power transfer

With the denotations used in Figure 3 and

P0 is active power transferred when  = 0 (preload)

Q0 is reactive power transferred when  = 0 (preload)

Figure 4 —Effect of phase-shift angle

0.4 Active Power Reactive Power

Figure 5 —Variation of additional power flow with the PST angle

4.5 Types of PSTs

Figure 7 —Phasor diagram for the no-load condition

VΔ1 = V20 − V30 (9)

The factors specific to the PST design are as follows:

⎯ PST purchasing price or the first cost

The factors specific to the project are as follows:

⎯ Foundations and the space requirement in the substation

4.5.2 Single-core design

Figure 8 —PST with half tap winding

Figure 9 —PST with small switching capability

Figure 10 —Connection diagram and the phasor diagram of a “delta-hexagonal” PST

4.5.3 Two-core design

Figure 11 —Commonly used circuit for two-core designs

4.6 Special on-load tap changer (OLTC) features

4.6.1 Potential connection of the regulating winding

Figure 12 —Impact of shields on recovery voltage

Figure 13 —Use of ARS

4.6.2 LTC with coarse ARS

Figure 14 —Different arrangements with coarse ARSs

4.6.3 Number of OLTCs required

Table 1 lists the minimum number of LTCs required.

Table 1 —Minimum number of LTCs required

4.7 Arrangement of more than one PST

4.7.1 Series connection of PSTs

4.7.2 Parallel connection of PSTs

4.8 Design criteria

4.8.1 Phase angle

4.8.2 Dielectric design of the two-core type

4.8.3 Special considerations for a multiple-tank design

*(a) = – is phase-shift angle (loaded) advance (3)

*(r) = –( + ) is phase-shift angle (loaded) retard (4)

P0 is active power transferred when = 0 (preload)

Q0 is reactive power transferred when = 0 (preload)

= arccos((VSN2 + VLN2 – VS1–L12) / (2 × VSN × VLN)) (18)