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ECZ GRADE 10 PHYSICS SUMMARISED NOTES
(PURE) FOR 5124 AND 5054.
G10 PHYSICS NOTES AND
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Here you will find Physics notes, exam tips, practical questions and exercises with answers designed for passing ECZ
exams.
Prepared by Jeffrey M for eskulu.com

Contact +260978031524

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Scientific Measurements ................................................................................................................ 5

Base And Derived Quantities ..................................................................................................... 5
Si Units ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Scalars And Vectors .................................................................................................................... 6
Length ....................................................................................................................................... 10
Measuring Time Intervals ......................................................................................................... 13
Practical 1- Factors That Affect The Period Of A Simple Pendulum ........................................ 14
Challenging Questions With Answers - 1 ................................................................................. 18
Solutions: .................................................................................................................................. 20
Volume ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Mass, Weight And Density ............................................................................................................ 25
Mass ......................................................................................................................................... 25
Weight ...................................................................................................................................... 26
Centre Of Mass ......................................................................................................................... 28
Practical 2 – Finding The Centre Of Mass Of An Irregular Lamina Using A Plumbline ............ 29
Density...................................................................................................................................... 31
Practical 3 – Density Of Floating Wood.................................................................................... 37
Challenging Questions With Answers - 2 ................................................................................. 39
Solutions: .................................................................................................................................. 40
Linear Motion................................................................................................................................ 43
Speed ........................................................................................................................................ 43
Velocity ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Acceleration ............................................................................................................................. 44
Distance –Time Graph .............................................................................................................. 46
Velocity-Time Graph................................................................................................................. 47
Acceleration Due To Gravity .................................................................................................... 51
Practical 4 – The Motion Of A Body Falling In A Fluid .............................................................. 57
Challenging Questions With Answers – 3 ................................................................................ 59
Solutions: .................................................................................................................................. 61
Forces ............................................................................................................................................ 64

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What Are Forces? ..................................................................................................................... 64

Newton’s First Law Of Motion ................................................................................................. 64
Newton’s Second Law Of Motion............................................................................................. 64
Practical 5 – Demonstrating Inertia With Card And Coin......................................................... 67
Mass And Inertia ...................................................................................................................... 68
Practical 6 – Relationship Between Acceleration And Force. .................................................. 68
Newton’s Third Law Of Motion ................................................................................................ 70
Friction...................................................................................................................................... 71
Challenging Questions With Answers – 4 ................................................................................ 72
.................................................................................................................................................. 73
Force And Elasticity ....................................................................................................................... 76
Practical 7 – Relationship Between The Extension Produced In A Spring And The Force
Applied ..................................................................................................................................... 76
Force And Circular Motion ............................................................................................................ 80
Circular Motion ........................................................................................................................ 80
Practical 8 – Relationship Between Force And The Speed Of Revolution ............................... 81
.................................................................................................................................................. 82
Applications Of Uniform Circular Motion ................................................................................ 83
Turning Effect Of Forces ............................................................................................................... 84
Moment Of A Force .................................................................................................................. 84
Principle Of Moments .............................................................................................................. 84
.................................................................................................................................................. 85
Practical 9 – Find Mass Using The Principle Of Moments........................................................ 85
Challenging Questions – 5 ........................................................................................................ 87
Solutions ................................................................................................................................... 89
Energy, Work And Power .............................................................................................................. 91
Work ......................................................................................................................................... 91
Practical 10 – Work Done In Stretching A Spring ..................................................................... 94
Energy ....................................................................................................................................... 95
Energy ....................................................................................................................................... 95
Kinetic Energy ........................................................................................................................... 96
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Gravitational Potential Energy ................................................................................................. 97

Elastic Potential Energy ............................................................................................................ 99
Law Of Conservation Of Energy ............................................................................................. 100
Internal Energy ....................................................................................................................... 101
Efficiency ................................................................................................................................ 102
Power ..................................................................................................................................... 102
Simple Machines .................................................................................................................... 103
Practical 11 – Length And Mechanical Advantage Of The Inclined Plane.............................. 107
Hydraulic Machine ................................................................................................................. 112
Challenging Questions- 6........................................................................................................ 114
................................................................................................................................................ 115
Solutions ................................................................................................................................. 116
................................................................................................................................................ 118
Pressure ...................................................................................................................................... 119
Atmospheric Pressure ............................................................................................................ 120
Pressure In Liquids ................................................................................................................. 120
Hydraulic Press ....................................................................................................................... 121
The Barometer ....................................................................................................................... 123
Manometer ............................................................................................................................ 124
................................................................................................................................................ 127
Archimedes’ Principle............................................................................................................. 128
Challenging Questions – 8 ...................................................................................................... 129
Solutions ................................................................................................................................. 131
................................................................................................................................................ 134
References .............................................................................................................................. 135

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SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS
BASE AND DERIVED QUANTITIES
 A Physical Quantity; consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
 All physical quantities can be grouped under base quantities and derived
quantities
 There are 7 base quantities;
1. Length
2. Time
3. Mass
4. Temperature
5. Current
6. Luminous Intensity
7. Amount of substance (the mole)
 Most units commonly used are in combination of the base quantities/units
they are known as derived quantities. Examples; Velocity(m/s),
Acceleration(m/s2), Force(Kgm/s2), Energy(Kgm2/s2)
 The internationally accepted metric system used is called the System of
Units (SI Units)

SI UNITS
The number(or value) of a physical quantity is written as a number followed by a
suitable unit.
Base Quantity SI Unit Symbol Used
Length Metre m
Time Second s
Mass Kilogram Kg
Temperature Kelvin K
Current Ampere A

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SCALARS AND VECTORS

Scalars
Definition Scalars refer to physical quantities having magnitude only
e.g length, time, mass, distance, speed, volume, density, energy

Vectors
Definition Vectors refer to physical quantities with both magnitude and direction
e.g displacement, velocity, acceleration, weight, force, moment

 Vectors can be represented by arrows

 The length of the arrow represents the magnitude. The arrow head represents
the direction. Eg;
10N

 Two vectors can be added to form a resultant vector

 There are two methods for addition of vectors;

Simple Addition Method

This is used when both vectors are parallel(same or opposite directions)

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Parallelogram Method
 This is used when both vectors are not in the same straight line.
 The resultant vector is represented in both magnitude and direction by the
diagonal of a parallelogram with two given vectors as adjacent sides.
 That is, joining the two tails of the vectors first, then complete the
parallelogram and lastly draw the diagonal

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Example

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LENGTH
The Metre Rule
 The millimetre is its smallest division.
 It can be used to measure lengths of more than 1mm.

Vernier Callipers

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 Used for measurements accurate to 0.1mm.

 It consists of two scales; main scale and Vernier scale
 Can be used to measure the diameter of balls and cylinders.
 The jaws marked A are used for measuring outer diameters whereas those
marked B are for internal diameters of tubes
 Enables us to take measurements up to 0.1 of the smallest division of
the main scale.
 Each division on the Vernier scale is 0.09mm.

Procedure:
1. First find the value of the Main scale that appears just before the zero of
the Vernier scale. (1mm)
2. Then find the value of the line on the main scale that coincides with a
line on the Vernier scale and write it as a decimal point. The diameter is
therefore (1.6mm)

Micrometer Screw Gauge

 Measures with an accuracy of 0.01mm.
 It can measure the diameter of hair.
 It consists of two scales; main scale on the sleeve and circular scale on the
thimble.
 Each division represents a distance of 0.01mm.

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Procedure:
1. Turn the thimble until the object is held gently.
2. Read the main scale on the sleeve for the 1st place of decimal. (4.50mm)
3. For the second place of the decimal, look at the marking on the thimble
scale that coincides with the horizontal line of the main scale. (0.12mm)
4. Simply add the two decimal numbers. Hence, the correct reading for the
object is 4.62mm.

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MEASURING TIME INTERVALS

 SI unit of time: second (s)

Simple Pendulum
 The time taken for the bob to complete one swing(oscillation), i.e A-B-C
and back to A depends on the length of the thread.
 This time is called the period T.

𝑡
𝑇= where t = time taken; n = number of swings
𝑛

Example:
In an experiment to determine the period of a pendulum, the time for 20
oscillations is found to be 30 seconds. What is the period of the
pendulum?

Solution:
𝑡
𝑇=
𝑛
30
𝑇=
20

𝑇 = 1.5𝑠

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PRACTICAL 1- FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE

PERIOD OF A SIMPLE PENDULUM
Apparatus
 A pendulum bob
 1 metre string
 A stop watch
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown below. Displace the pendulum through a
small angle θ (θ < 10o) and release it. Use a stop watch to time 20
oscillations (complete cycles) of the pendulum.

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 eskulu.com 15
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 eskulu.com 16
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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS - 1

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SOLUTIONS:

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VOLUME
Volume is the amount of space an object occupies. The unit of volume is the
cubic metre (m3)

The Volume of a Liquid

 Apparatus that can be used to measure volume of a liquid; measuring cylinder,
pipette, burette, etc.
 How to take correct readings for the volume of a liquid:

 Take the reading from the meniscus.

The Volume of a Solid

 The volume of a regular solid can be found using the following formula;
Volume = Base Area x Height
Or
Volume = Length x Width x Height
 For irregular solids, the above formula above cannot work.
 The displacement method is used to find the volume of small irregular solids.

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 The following describes this method; Calculations are shown here;

Volume of water before solid is put in = V1

Volume of water after solid is put in = V2
Volume of water displaced = Volume of Solid
Volume of Solid = V2 – V1
 Another method is the displacement can method described below

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MASS, WEIGHT AND DENSITY

MASS
 Mass is the amount of matter a substance contains. It is measured in
Kilogram.
 Inertia of a body refers to the tendency of not changing its state of rest or
motion.
 A stationary object tends to remain at rest by itself. Such tendency is called
inertia. Inertia is a Latin word for “laziness”.
 A moving body keeps on moving with the same magnitude and direction.
Such tendency is called inertia.
 Examples of inertia:
1. When a bus stops suddenly, the passengers continue to move
forward.
2. A fat person can easily lose his balance if he tries to run in a zigzag
manner.
3. A bus with a mass of 7000 Kg has a larger inertia than a car with a
mass of 1200 Kg.
Unit Symbol Volume
Tonne t 103 Kg
Gramme g 10-3 Kg
Milligramme mg 10-6 Kg

Measurement of Mass
 Mass can be measured using a beam balance.

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 The most common balance is the triple beam balance.

 Cautions; Ensure to Zero the balance and ensure that the pan and beams
are clean.

Determining the Mass of a Liquid

The following formula is usually used;
Mass of liquid = Mass of container containing liquid - Mass of container only

Determining the Mass of Air

The following formula is usually used;
Mass of air = Mass of container containing air - Mass of container only

WEIGHT
Weight is a vector quantity that measures the amount of gravity acting on a
body.
 All objects are attracted by the gravitational pull of Earth.
 An object with more mass experiences greater gravitational force acting on it.
 According to Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion, weight can be calculated by simply
multiplying mass by acceleration due to gravity

W = mg
 g is also known as gravitational field strength which has the same magnitude
of 9.81 but different SI Unit, ie. NKg-1

Differences Between Mass and Weight

MASS WEIGHT

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Definition measure of the amount of matter contained attractive forced exerted due to gravity
Quantity scalar vector
SI Unit kilogram (Kg) newton (N)
Measurement using a beam balance or electronic balance using a spring balance or compression balance
Property cannot be changed by changing its location, weight changes depending on location
shape or speed

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The following shows the mass and weight of an astronaut when he travels
from Earth to Earth’s Moon:

On Earth On Moon In Outerspace

Mass = 84 Kg Mass = 84 Kg Mass = 84 Kg
Weight = 840 N Weight = 140 N Weight = 0 N
(Gravity of Earth is (Gravity of moon is about (No gravity in outer
about 10N/Kg) one-sixth of value on space, weightlessness)
Earth. About 1.6N/Kg)

CENTRE OF MASS
 Bodies on Earth experience the pull gravity. This force of gravity is always
directed towards the earth’s centre and is called the weight of the body.
 The centre of mass is the point in a body where all the mass of the body seems
to be concentrated.

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PRACTICAL 2 – FINDING THE CENTRE OF MASS

OF AN IRREGULAR LAMINA USING A
PLUMBLINE

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DENSITY
 Density is a measure of how closely the particles of a substance are packed
together.
Density of a substance is its mass per unit volume
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑣
 Where 𝜌 = Density, m = Mass, v = Volume

Determining the Density of a Liquid

 Weight a clean beaker on a balance and run into it a measures volume of
liquid.
 Use the following to calculate the density;

Density of liquid = Mass of beaker with liquid – Mass of beaker only

Volume of liquid

𝝆 = m1 – m2
V

 1 Kg = 1000 g ; 1 m = 100 cm; 1 m3 = 106 cm3

Determining the Density of an Irregular Solid

 For example, we are finding the density of a stone. We will use the following
formula.

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𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒

Relative Density

 As long as the mass of equal volumes of water and the liquid whose density is
to be determined are known, the density of the liquid can be determined as
follows:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

 Relative Density is the ratio of the mass of any volume of a substance to the
mass of an equal volume of water.

 If the relative density of a liquid is 0.80 its density is 0.80 g/cm3.

Example

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Relative Densities of Some Solids and Liquids

RELATIVE DENSITIES OF SOLIDS RELATIVE DENSITIES OF LIQUIDS
Aluminium 2.7 Alcohol(Ethanol) 0.79
Brass 8.5 Benzene 0.90
Copper 8.9 Glycerine 1.26
Cork 0.2 to 0.25 Mercury 13.6
Glass 2.5 to 2.9 Methylated Spirit 0.80
Gold 19.3 Milk 1.031
Ice 0.92 Paraffin 0.85
Iron 7.86 Petrol 0.66 to 0.69
Lead 11.3 Sea Water 1.02
Marble 2.6 Sulphiric Acid 1.84
Platinum 1.4
Silver 10.5
Sulphur 2.0
Tin 7.3
Zinc 7.1

Uses of Density
We can use densities to identify substances and even determine their purity.
Chemicals in industry can be separated by using their different densities. This is
done in the separation of oils in the petroleum industry.

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PRACTICAL 3 – DENSITY OF FLOATING WOOD

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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS - 2

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SOLUTIONS:

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LINEAR MOTION
 Scalar quantities: Distance and Speed.
Vector quantities: Displacement and Velocity.
 Displacement incudes direction. Distance only has magnitude.
 Velocity incudes direction. Speed only has magnitude.
 For motions in a straight line, there is no difference between distance and
displacement (therefore, speed and velocity are the same thing).

SPEED
Speed is the rate of increase of distance moved with time.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑥
𝑆=
𝑡

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VELOCITY
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time and it involves the idea of
direction. Constant velocity means that the speed is not changing, and it is in a
constant, specified direction.

ACCELERATION
 When a resting object starts to move and increases its speed, we say it is
accelerating.
 When a moving object slows down and finally comes to a stop, we say it is
decelerating.
 SI Unit of acceleration: metre per second squared (ms-2)

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
The Motion in a Straight Line of a Moving Object
 At rest: speed is zero, acceleration is zero.
 If there is increasing speed, it may be:
 If there is increasing speed, it may be:
o Uniform for a period or
o Non-uniform for a period.
 The object can also move with constant speed for a period. (No change in
speed, acceleration is zero)
 If there is decreasing speed, it may be:
o Uniform for a period or
o Non-uniform for a period.

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Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Linear Motion

If we use ‘a’ to represent acceleration, ‘u’ for initial velocity, ‘v’ for final velocity,
‘s’ for displacement and ‘t’ for time, the following equations of motion can be
used.

v = u + at -------------------------------------------------(1)
1
s = ut + at2 ----------------------------------------------(2)
2
v2 = u2 + 2as -----------------------------------------------(3)

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DISTANCE –TIME GRAPH

 The following figure shows the different kinds of motion of an object’s
distance-time graph.
o When at rest, the graph is a horizontal straight line.
o For constant speed, the graph is an upward sloping straight line.
o For increasing or decreasing speed, the graph is a curve.
o There is no downward sloping for a distance-time graph

The speed is the gradient(amount of slope) of the graph

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VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH
 For motions in a straight line, the speed-time (or velocity-time) graph shows
an object’s acceleration.
 The following figure shows different kinds of motion
o When at rest or moving at constant speed, the graph is a horizontal
straight line: both have zero acceleration.
o When moving at uniform speed, the graph is an upward or a downward
sloping straight line:
o Uniform acceleration (or deceleration)
o When moving at non-uniform (increasing or decreasing) speed, the
graph is an upward or a downward sloping curve.
o When moving at non-uniform speed, the graph is an upward or a
downward sloping curve.

 In the exam, candidates should be able to describe the different kinds of

motion of an object by reading distance-time or speed-time graph.
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Example
A body moving from rest acquires a velocity of 20ms-1 in 4s. It moves with this
velocity for 6 seconds and again accelerates to 30m/s in 5s. It travels for 3s at this
velocity and then comes to rest with uniform retardation in 10s. Draw a velocity-
time graph and use it to calculate (a) the acceleration while the velocity changes
from 0 to 20 m/s (b) the acceleration while it changes from 20 to 30m/s (c) the
retardation (d) the total distance covered (e) the average speed of the whole
motion.
Solution

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more examples…

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ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY

 The force of gravity pulls down all objects.
 A free falling object experiences gravity as the only force acting on it.
 All free falling objects, regardless of shape, size or mass will accelerate at the
same constant rate downwards.
 When released from the same height, they will reach the ground at the same
time.
1
 Applying the equation s = ut + at2 , the distance ‘x’ fallen by the body
2
1
in time ‘t’ is given by x = ut + gt2 , where ‘g’ is the acceleration due
2
to gravity.

Since, u = 0 for free fall,

1
Then, x = gt2
2
2𝑥
Hence, g =
𝑡2
 For convenience in calculations, a value of g = 10 m/s2 is usually used for
objects on Earth.

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Equations of Motion under Gravity

v = u - gt ---------------------------------------------------(1)
1
H = ut - gt2 (for upward motion)---------------------(2)
2
1
H = gt2 (for downward motion)-----------------(3)
2
u2 = -2gh (for upward motion)---------------------(4)
v2 = 2gh (for downward motion)-----------------(5)

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Example

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Effect of Air Resistance

 There is always air resistance acting on the moving object in a direction
opposite the direction of motion.
 Air resistance is a frictional force which:
o Increases as the size of the surface area of the object increases.(directly
proportional)
o Increases as the speed of the object increases.(directly proportional)
o Increases with the density of air.

Terminal Velocity
 Air resistance increases with the uniform increasing speed of the free-
falling object.
 At first, the amount of air resistance is less than the weight of the free-
falling object.
 The speed of the falling object gets higher and higher. Therefore, air
resistance also get higher and higher.
 The weight of the object is constant. Therefore the resultant force keeps
decreasing and decreasing.
 Eventually, the resultant force reaches zero, i.e acceleration of the object
drops to zero.
 The object falls with a constant speed called terminal velocity.
 Terminal velocity is therefore defined as the maximum downward velocity
possible for a particular object falling through a fluid.

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PRACTICAL 4 – THE MOTION OF A BODY

FALLING IN A FLUID

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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS – 3

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SOLUTIONS:

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FORCES
WHAT ARE FORCES?
 A force is a push or pull.
 A force is a vector quantity.
 The SI Unit is Newton (N), named after the famous Physicist Sir Isaac Newton.

Effects of Forces
 A force can change motion, i.e it can cause an object to start or stop moving,
increase or decrease speed and maintain or change direction.
 A force can distort or change the shape of an object. E.g a rubber band or a
spring when compressed by a force.
 Can make objects turn about a point or cause a rotation

Unbalanced Forces
 If there are two or more forces acting on a body, there is a resultant force.
 If the resultant force is zero we say that the forces are balanced.
 If the resultant force is not zero, we say the forces are unbalanced.

NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

 A BODY WILL CONTINUE IN ITS STATE OF REST OR OF UNIFORM MOTION IN
A STRAIGHT LINE UNLESS AN EXTERNAL FORCE IS APPLIED TO IT.

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

 AN UNBALANCED FORCE ACTING ON A BODY PRODUCES AN ACCELERATION
IN THE DIRECTION OF THE FORCE. THIS ACCELERATION IS DIRECTLY

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PROPORTIONAL TO THE FORCE AND INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO THE

MASS OF THE BODY.
 This can be represented as follows:

Force = mass × acceleration

F = ma

Weight = mass × gravity

W = mg

Examples

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more examples…

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PRACTICAL 5 – DEMONSTRATING INERTIA

WITH CARD AND COIN

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MASS AND INERTIA

 A body with larger mass has greater inertia. Therefore, a lighter object is easier
to start or stop moving. A heavier object is harder to stop or start moving.
 Mass can be defined as the measure of inertia.

PRACTICAL 6 – RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

ACCELERATION AND FORCE.

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NEWTON’S THIRD LAW OF MOTION

 FOR EVERY ACTING FORCE THERE EXISTS A REACTING FORCE THAT IS
EQUAL IN MAGNITUDE BUT OPPOSITE IN DIRECTION.
 W = WEIGHT ; R = NORMAL REACTION FORCE:

 When an object hangs by a string, the weight of the object is opposed by an

equal force called tension in the string

 TENSION = T; WEIGHT = W

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FRICTION
 Friction force always opposes the motion of an object.
 There is no surface that is completely smooth and this is why friction exists.
 Lubrication reduces friction.
 For example, a man uses a string to pull a box. Tension causes the box to
move. There is friction between the box and the rough road and its direction is
opposite to the direction of motion.

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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS – 4

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FORCE AND ELASTICITY

PRACTICAL 7 – RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE
EXTENSION PRODUCED IN A SPRING AND THE
FORCE APPLIED

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 Hooke’s Law states that; provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the
extension of a spring is directly proportional to the load applied on the
spring
 Where “k” is the constant of proportionality called the spring constant;
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑘=
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐹
𝑘=
𝑒
 The SI unit of K is N/m
 The gradient of the graph = spring constant

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 The spring undergoes elastic deformation and obeys hookes law

from O to E. Beyond E, it undergoes plastic deformation hence
it does not obey hookes law

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FORCE AND CIRCULAR MOTION

CIRCULAR MOTION
 The motion of an object at constant speed along a circular path is uniform
circular motion.

 The ball above is whirled at a constant speed.

 Its direction changes continuously.
 Therefore, its velocity changes in direction but the magnitude remains the
same.
 This results in centripetal acceleration towards the centre of the circle.
Centripetal acceleration is given by:
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
Where ‘v’ Is the linear speed and ‘r’ the radius of the circle.
 As the ball is whirled around, a force is being exerted on the ball through
the string towards the centre. This force is called centripetal force.

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 =
𝑟
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒;

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𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹=
𝑟

 F = centripetal force; r = radius; m = mass; v = linear speed.

 The ball exerts an equal and opposite force on the string away from the
centre. This force is called centrifugal force.

PRACTICAL 8 – RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

FORCE AND THE SPEED OF REVOLUTION

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Examples

APPLICATIONS OF UNIFORM CIRCULAR

MOTION
A Car Going Round a Curve
The maximum safe speed for the motorist not to skid off the road is given by the
following formula;
𝑟
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝐹 ×
𝑚
More Applications
-Centrifuge
-Conical Pendulum
-An aircraft taking turn

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TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES

MOMENT OF A FORCE
 The turning effect of a force about a pivot is called moment or torque.
 We can measure moment of a force if we know:
1. The magnitude of the force applied.
2. The perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and
the pivot
 The moment of a force about a pivot is the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance of its line of action from the pivot.
 Hence;
 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹 × 𝑑
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝐹: 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝑁); 𝑑: 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡

SI Unit of Moment of Force

 Newton Metre (Nm).
 Moment of force is a vector quantity.

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
 It states that, when a body is in equilibrium under the action of forces, the
sum of clockwise moments
about any point is equal to
the sum of anticlockwise
moments about the same
point.

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PRACTICAL 9 – FIND MASS USING THE

PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS.

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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS – 5

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SOLUTIONS

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ENERGY, WORK AND POWER

WORK
Work is said to be done on a body whenever a force produces a displacement
on the body. This displacement must be in the direction of the applied force.
Therefore,
Work Done = Force × Distance
W=F×d
 SI Unit is joule (j )
 1 Joule = 1 Nm
 Nm can be used for both work and moment of force.
 Joule cannot be used for moment of force.

Work Done by Frictional Force

 When a force is applied on a body resting on a surface, frictional force is
developed, opposing the motion of the body.
 Hence, work has to be done to overcome friction.
Useful Work Done = Work Done by the Applied Force – Work Done Against Friction
Useful Work Done = Fd - fd

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Example

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more examples…

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PRACTICAL 10 – WORK DONE IN STRETCHING

A SPRING

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ENERGY

ENERGY
 Energy is the capacity to do work.
 Energy can change from one form to another
 It has no direction (scalar)
 SI Unit is Joule (j)
 Everything around us has energy in different forms

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Forms of Energy
COMMON EXAMPLE
Chemical Energy Fuels(oil, coal, petrol), electric cells,
food, explosives
Electrical Energy The energy associated with the current
in electric motors, heaters, electrical
appliances etc.
Mechanical Energy All objects in motion have Kinetic
1. Kinetic Energy Energy.
2. Potential Energy
i. Gravitational Potential Raised bodies have Gravitational
Energy Potential Energy.
ii. Elastic Potential Energy
Compressed or Stretched material has
Elastic Potential Energy.
Nuclear Energy The energy released from nuclear
reactions like fission and fusion.

KINETIC ENERGY
 All moving objects have kinetic energy.
 When an object is at rest, there is no kinetic energy.
 Kinetic energy depends on an objects mass and speed.
A running elephant has more kinetic energy than a running man.
 To measure kinetic energy, we apply the following equation;
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦; 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠; 𝑣 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
2

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Example

GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

 The energy of position is called potential energy.
 When an object is lifted to a higher position, it gains gravitational potential
energy.
 This is stored energy which can be converted to kinetic energy when the object
falls down.
 e.g Water stored behind a dam.
 Potential Energy depends on an object’s mass and height.
 To measure potential energy, apply the following equation:

𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
𝑵
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝑷. 𝑬 = 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 (𝒋); 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 (𝒌𝒈); 𝒈 = 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝑲𝒈) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉 = 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒎)

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Example

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more examples…

ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

 A compressed or stretched spring goes back to its original shape when
released. The work done on stretching or compressing the spring is called
elastic potential energy.

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LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

 STATES: Energy can be changed from one form to another, but it can neither
be destroyed nor created.
 When energy changes from one form to another, the total amount of energy
stays the same.

Example

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Example

INTERNAL ENERGY
Bodies at rest possess Internal Energy due to their mass.
The mass of the body at rest is known as its rest mass (m) and its internal energy
as rest energy.

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Example

EFFICIENCY
This is the ratio of useful output to total energy input.
𝑼𝒔𝒆𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

POWER
This is the rate at which work is done.
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑫𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝒊𝒏 𝒋 )
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒊𝒏 𝒔)

𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 (𝒊𝒏 𝒋 )

𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 (𝒊𝒏 𝒔)

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𝑾
𝑷=
𝒕

𝑬
𝒐𝒓 𝑷=
𝒕
The SI Unit of power is j/s or watt (W). 1 watt is equal to 1 j/s.

SIMPLE MACHINES
What is a Simple Machine?
 A machine is any mechanical device that facilitates a force applied at one
point to overcome another force at a different point in the system.
 A simple machine is a machine that is made up of only one type of
machine. E.g The screw, lever, inclined plane, pulley, wheel and axel,
gears.
 A machine made up of many simple machines is called a compound
machine.
 The force applied is called EFFORT and the force that the machine must
overcome is called the LOAD.

Mechanical Advantage
This is the number of times a machine magnifies the effort.
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𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑁)
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝑁)
Mechanical advantage has no units because it is a ratio.

Velocity Ratio
This is the ratio of the velocity of the effort to the velocity of the load.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
Velocity ratio has no units because it is a ratio.
Velocity ratio is the number of times the effort moves further than the load.

Efficiency of Machines
The following formula can be used;
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑀.𝐴
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100% 𝑂𝑅 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100%
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉.𝑅

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Types of Simple Machines

1. LEVERS:
They are simple machines that apply the principle of moments. A lever is a bar
capable of rotating about a fixed point called a PIVOT. Examples;
Levers have a mechanical advantage greater than 1 as well as a velocity ratio
greater than 1.

Example

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2. INCLINED PLANE:
This is a slope that enables a load to be raised more gradually by using a smaller
effort than when it is raised vertically upwards.

It is easier to move a heavy load from A to C than

from B to C.

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PRACTICAL 11 – LENGTH AND MECHANICAL

ADVANTAGE OF THE INCLINED PLANE

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Velocity Ratio of an Inclined Plane

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 1
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠; 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Mechanical Advantage of an Inclined Plane

𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 1
𝑀. 𝐴 = 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠; 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

3. SCREWS AND BOLTS

Velocity Ratio of Bolt

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
2𝜋𝑅
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑝

Where p = pitch and R = Radius as

the load is raised or lowered

4. SCREW JACK
2𝜋𝑅
𝑉. 𝑅 =
𝑝
2𝜋𝑅
𝑀. 𝐴 =
𝑝

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5. GEARS

Gears are toothed wheels of different diameters.

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙
OR
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙(𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑)
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡)

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HYDRAULIC MACHINE

 The force on the smaller piston is calculated by applying the principle of

moments.
E×x=y×F
𝐸 ×𝑥
F=
𝑦
 Suppose while pressing down on A1 , the piston moves a distance d1 and the
piston at A2 moves up a distance d2. The volume of the liquid swept from
piston A1 is equal to the volume of the liquid moved to A2
Volume from A1 = A1d1
Volume moved to A2 = A2d2
Thus; A1d1 = A2d2
𝑑1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = = 2
𝑑2 𝐴1 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟

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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS- 6

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SOLUTIONS

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PRESSURE
What is Pressure?
 Pressure is force acting normally per unit area.
 Larger area results in lower pressure.
 Smaller area results in higher pressure.
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
P = Pressure; F = Force; A = Area;
 SI unit of pressure is N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).

Example

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ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
1 atmosphere or 1 atm is about 1.013 x 105 pa (or 101 300 pa). This is the normal
atmospheric pressure.

PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS
 Pressure increases in depth

 Given the volume of the liquid is V and its density is 𝝆 then;

𝐹
P=
𝐴
𝑚𝑔
P=
𝐴
Hence;

P = ρgh
Where m = mass; g = gravity; h = height;

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 Pressure acts in all directions.

 Pressure does not depend on shape of the container.

HYDRAULIC PRESS
It uses the principle of transmission of pressure.

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Example

THE BAROMETER
A mercury barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
Construction of a simple mercury barometer:
1. A thick-walled glass tube (about 1m long) is filled with mercury
completely.
2. The open end of the tube is covered with a finger and inverted.
3. Place the inverted tube in a trough of mercury.
The height of the mercury column is found to be about 760mm (76cm)

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 Since the height of the mercury column reflects the value of the atmospheric
pressure, atmospheric pressure can be expressed in terms of the height of a
column of mercury.
 1 atm is 760 mmHg or 76 cmHg
 Hg is Mercury.

MANOMETER
Manometer is used to measure gas pressure.
Construction of a manometer:
1. The manometer consists of a U-tube containing a column of liquid.
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2. The liquid can be mercury, water or oil.

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How to measure gas pressure?

 When both arms are open, same atmospheric pressure is exerted on the
liquid surfaces X and Y, and they are at the same horizontal level.
 To measure the pressure of a gas, side X is connected to a gas supply by a
length of rubber tubing.
 The gas exerts pressure on the surface X. The gas pressure must be greater
than atmospheric pressure to cause level Y to rise.
 The gas pressure at X is given by:
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑋 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑌𝑍
𝑃𝑋 = 𝑃𝑂 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
Where Po = atmospheric pressure
𝜌 = density of liquid
g = gravitational field strength
h = length of column YZ

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Example

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ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
When a body is wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an
upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Example

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CHALLENGING QUESTIONS – 8

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SOLUTIONS

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REFERENCES
Pixabay.com
physicsclassroom.com
Physics (Pure) Key Points K. L Poon
Excel & Advance in Physics A. Mvula
Physics 10-12 L. Muunyu

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