The 18th – 19th centuries

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Before the end of the 18 century Britain was as powerful as France. This resulted from the growth of its
industries and from the wealth of its large new trading empire, part of which had been captured from the French.
Britain now had the strongest navy in the world; the navy controlled Britain’s own trade routes and endangered
those of its enemies. This was made possible by the way in which government had developed during the 18th
century.
House of Hanover. In 1714, George, Elector of Hanover, became king in accordance with the Act of
Settlement, 1702. The act stipulated that, after the death of the childless Queen Anne (the last legitimate Stuart
monarch) the British monarchy should be Protestant and Hanoverian. The Hanoverian era continued through 4
successive Georges and ended with the last representative of the line, William IV, who died in 1837. The major
opposition to the Hanoverians came from the Jacobites, who supported the restoration of the Stuarts to the throne.
Two main Jacobite rebellions occurred, the 1st in 1715, the 2nd in 1745. The Battle of Culloden, in March 1746 -
the last battle fought on British soil - marked the final blow to the Jacobites' hopes as the duke of Cumberland led
the government forces to a decisive victory. Among the king’s ministers was Robert Walpole, who remained the
greatest political leader for over 20 years. He is considered Britain’s first Prime Minister.
Political upheaval. Britain was governed under a mixed constitution, achieved through the Glorious
Revolution of 1689. The monarch ruled in conjunction with the 2 houses of parliament. All 3 parties were closely
involved in political decisions. Gradually, however, the House of Commons and the prime minister assumed more
political control than had been the case under the Stuarts. Parliament existed under an unreformed system until the
Great Reform Act of 1832.
Ireland was granted legislative independence in 1782, but the chief executive roles in Dublin were British
appointees. The Irish parliament was dissolved when the Act of Union (1801) created the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland.
Radical groups (British politicians who openly supported the colonists) - such as the supporters of John Wilkes
in the 1760s; the corresponding societies of the 1790s; and the Hampden clubs founded in 1812 - all pressed for
parliamentary reform. But it was not until after the Napoleonic Wars that a fully-fledged reform movement emerged
with a mass platform.
The repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts (1828) and the granting of Catholic emancipation (1829)
introduced political rights for Protestant dissenters and Roman Catholics.
Britain at war. For over a third of the Hanoverian period, Britain was involved in international wars. In the
War of the Austrian Succession (1740 - 1748) Britain moved against French expansionism in the Low Countries and
the Caribbean. In the Seven Years' War (1756 - 1763), Britain clashed with France, later allied with Spain, for
dominance in North America and India, and supported Prussia in the European campaigns against Austria and
Russia. Britain fought the Americans in their War of Independence (1776 - 1783). In the French revolutionary and
Napoleonic wars (1793 - 1801 and 1802 - 1815), the British army and navy locked horns with France in Europe, the
Caribbean, Egypt and India. The War of the Austrian Succession had no decisive outcome. Britain famously lost the
American War of Independence, but triumphed in the Seven Years' War and in the wars against France that
culminated in Wellington's victory over Napoleon at Waterloo. Points of view. The Battle of Trafalgar (21 October
1805) is a high point in British history - a famous victory, a famous tragedy, an event that everybody knows
something about and everybody celebrates.
Population explosion. During the Hanoverian era, Britain experienced considerable demographic growth, the
birth of an industrial economy, and extensive social change. The British population doubled in the century after
1721, from 7.1 to 14.2 million people. Most of the growth occurred after 1750, and particularly after the 1780s.
Between 1810 and 1820, average family size reached 5 or 6 children per family, the highest rate in any decade in
modern British history. Social upheaval. . Industrialisation brought considerable social change to Britain. Religious
and educational provision for the lower classes underwent considerable change. Protestant nonconformity,
especially Methodism (a new religious movement which offered hope and self-respect to the new proletariat ),
gained adherents and offered more spontaneous, emotional Christian worship than the Church of England provided.
Popular education was heavily influenced by Christian morality.
Acts of Union: The creation of the United Kingdom. Devolution in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland has
sharpened English awareness of unsettled constitutional issues. But state formation, transformation and even
disintegration have been persistent themes of British and Irish history since the 16 th century. The formation of any
early modern state was achieved usually by absorption or by conquest. England had absorbed Wales and Cornwall
by 1543, through parliamentary incorporation, political and cultural integration of the ruling elites, and
administrative cohesion across church and state.
Britain and the Rise of Science. In Britain, scientific development reached its zenith in the second half of the
17th century, during the period known as the 'scientific revolution'. The foundation was laid for modern science in
Britain long before the Polish mathematician Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) demonstrated a model of the
universe in which the Earth and other planets revolved around the Sun. At Merton College, Oxford, Robert
Grosseteste (1168-1253) and his student Roger Bacon (1219-1292) argued that geometry was the basis for
comprehending the mysteries of nature, and that mathematical models provided our understanding of the world

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around us. Science took off in Britain with the Restoration of the monarchy. In late 1660, John Wilkins (1614-72),
former Warden of Wadham College, Oxford, with a group of talented young experimental scientists and some
gentlemen 'virtuosi' (amateur enthusiasts), founded the Royal Society. Among those active in the Society in the
early years were some of the major figures in British science: Robert Boyle (1627-91), Robert Hooke (1635-1703),
Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723), and Sir William Petty (1623-87). In 1675 the Royal Observatory was
established at Greenwich, and the talented astronomer John Flamsteed (1646-1719) appointed the first Astronomer
Royal. Among those closely associated with charting the heavens over the next 25 years were Edmond Halley
(1656-1742) and Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Newton, who emerged from scholarly near-reclusiveness at Trinity
College, Cambridge, in the 1690s, to become Master of the Royal Mint (assuring the reliability of English coinage),
and President of the Royal Society in 1703, now stands as a figurehead for British scientific achievement. By 1700
there were scientific institutions across Britain, and a commitment to science as the firm basis for success in
commerce and industry, and for national prosperity, was an established plank in the political agenda.

Victorian Britain, 1837 - 1901 (the 19th century)

During the Victorian era, Britain could claim to be the world's superpower, despite social inequality at home
and burgeoning industrial rivals overseas. Britain seemed impervious to revolutionary change. Though every other
aspect of British life in the 19 th century was transformed by industrial, social and cultural development, the
country's rulers seemed somehow to avoid the mistakes of their continental counterparts. When Britain was at the
peak of its imperial power at the end of the 19th century, historians charted the country's rise to greatness over the
preceding hundred years or so. They were inclined to stress British genius for avoiding fundamental conflict
between classes and social groups, and the country's ability to manage evolutionary, rather than revolutionary,
political change.
Parliamentary reform. Fear of Charles’s interest in the Catholic church and of the monarchy becoming too
powerful in the 17th century resulted in the 1 st political parties in Britain. One of these parties was a group of MPs
who became known as “Whigs”, a rude name for cattle drivers. The Whigs were afraid of an absolute monarchy
and of the Catholic faith with which they connected it. They also wanted to have no regular or “standing” army; they
believed strongly in allowing religious freedom. The Whigs were opposed by another group, nicknamed “Tories”,
an Irish name for thieves – they upheld the authority of the crown and the Church and were naturally inheritors of
the “Royalist” position. These 2 parties (Whigs and Tories) became the basis of Britain’s two-party parliamentary
system of government. Tory governments since the 1790s had provided a strong thread of anti-reformist continuity.
The Whig government that followed it under Earl Grey, however, came into office with plans for parliamentary
reform, and a succession of Whig leaders proclaimed that reform was necessary to secure the state. It rapidly
became clear that opposition to reform remained strong in the House of Commons and overwhelming in the House
of Lords, and this led to the Whigs' first reform bill running into the parliamentary sands. A general election held in
1831 gave the Whigs an unassailable majority for reform in the Commons but it did little to change opinion in the
Lords, and the Lords' rejection of the Whigs' second reform bill in October led to widespread rioting throughout
Britain. Public support for parliamentary reform had never been greater. Britain avoided political revolution in the
19th century, but it is far from clear that it was bound to do so. In 1831-32, to adapt a phrase used by the Duke of
Wellington about the Battle of Waterloo, it had been a pretty 'near run thing'.
Industrial Revolution. Victoria came to the throne during the early phase of the world's first industrial
revolution. Industrialisation brought with it new markets, a consumer boom and greater prosperity for most of the
propertied classes. Desperately poor housing conditions, long working hours, the ravages of infectious disease and
premature death were the inevitable consequence. The Victorian town symbolised Britain's progress and world pre-
eminence, but it also witnessed some of the most deprived people, and depraved habits, in the civilised world.
Mortality data revealed that, in the poorer quarters of Britain's larger cities, almost one child in five born alive in the
1830s and 1840s had died by the age of five. Polluted water and damp housing were the main causes. Death rates in
Britain as a whole remained obstinately above 20 per thousand until the 1880s and only dropped to 17 by the end of
Victoria's reign. One of the great scourges of the age - tuberculosis - remained unconquered, claiming between
60,000 and 70,000 lives in each decade of Victoria's reign.
Politics. At the beginning of Victoria's reign, about a fifth of adult males were entitled to vote. That proportion
increased, through parliamentary reform acts passed in 1867 and 1884, to one-third and two-thirds respectively. No
women could legally vote in parliamentary elections until almost 18 years after Victoria's death - and the queen
herself was no suffragist. Women did, however, play an increasingly influential role both in locally-elected school
and poor law boards and in local government from the 1870s onwards. During the Victorian era, the United
Kingdom could plausibly be considered the world's superpower. If not democratic, the political system was
becoming increasingly representative. The struggle for political supremacy between William Gladstone and
Benjamin Disraeli in the late 1860s and 1870s represents perhaps the most sophisticated political duel in the
nation's history.
The Chartist Movement 1838 – 1848. In the lead up to the events of 1848, the People's Charter was published
- in May 1838 - as a draft parliamentary bill. It contained 6 points: manhood suffrage; the ballot; abolition of
property qualifications for MPs; payment of MPs; equal electoral districts; and annual elections. Thousands of

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working people had rallied together on the basis of this charter, and hundreds of them had gone to prison for their
beliefs. In 1848 the British establishment watched in horror as revolution swept across Europe. In London, Chartist
leaders delivered a petition to Parliament asserting the rights of ordinary people. In the years 1839, 1842 and 1848,
the Chartist Movement urged Parliament to adopt 3 great petitions. Of these, the best known is the final petition,
with 6 million signatures (although a number of these were later found to be fake), presented to Parliament on 10th
April 1848 after a huge meeting on Kennington Common. This event achieved great prominence in the story of
Chartism, due largely to the reaction of the authorities as they faced the challenges of that turbulent year. Working
people had proclaimed themselves as Chartists at crowded meetings throughout March 1848. The authorities had
viewed this campaign with great concern, and some of the propertied classes had come to believe that the Chartists
intended revolution, even though the Movement's leaders always emphasized their commitment to peaceful protest.
Chartism was a national movement. Though it was particularly strong in the textile towns of Lancashire and
Yorkshire, as well as in the east midlands.
Social and economic improvements. In 1870 and 1891 two Education Acts were passed. As a result of these,
all children had to go to school up to the age of 13. England now started to build “redbrick” universities in the new
industrial cities. These new universities were unlike Oxford and Cambridge, and taught more science and
technology to feed Britain’s industries.

Britain of the 20th and 21st centuries.

At the start of the 20 th century Britain was still the greatest world power. By the middle of the century, although
still one of the “Big Three”, Britain was clearly weaker than either the United States or the Soviet Union. By the
end of the 70s Britain was no longer a world power at all, and was not even among the richest European powers.
One reason of this sudden decline was the cost and effort of two world wars. Another reason was the cost of keeping
up the empire followed by the economic problems involved in losing it. But the most important reason was the basic
weaknesses in Britain’s industrial power and particularly its failure to spend as much as other industrial nations in
developing its industry. Near the end of the century Britain has lost much of its earlier self-confidence. Britain still
has some valuable advantages. The discovery of oil in the North Sea has rescued the nation from the situation that
might have been far worse. And in electronics and technology Britain is still a world competitor.
20th century. Queen Victoria died in 1901 and her son Edward VII became king, inaugurating the Edwardian
Era, which was characterised by great and ostentatious displays of wealth in contrast to the sombre Victorian Era.
With the event of the 20th century, things such as motion pictures, automobiles, and aeroplanes were coming into
use. The new century was characterised by a feeling of great optimism. The social reforms of the last century
continued into the 20th with the Labour Party being formed in 1900. Edward died in 1910, to be succeeded by
George V. The Edwardian Era barely lasted longer than its namesake, for it all came crashing down in the summer
of 1914, just as Europe was at the zenith of its power in the world. The era was prosperous but political crises were
escalating out of control. Dangerfield (1935) identified the "strange death of liberal England" as the multiple crisis
that hit simultaneously in 1910-1914 with serious social and political instability arising from the Irish crisis, labor
unrest, the women's suffrage movements, and partisan and constitutional struggles in Parliament. At one point it
even seemed the Army might refuse orders dealing with Northern Ireland. No solution appeared in sight when the
unexpected outbreak of the Great War in 1914 put domestic issues on hold. After a rough start Britain under David
Lloyd George successfully mobilised its manpower, industry, finances, Empire and diplomacy, in league with the
French and Americans, to fight off the Germans and Turks.
The Representation of the People Act 1918 gave women householders the vote, but it would not be until 1928
that equal suffrage was achieved. Labour did not achieve major success until the 1922 general election.
Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom from 1900 to 1945: Marquess of Salisbury, Arthur Balfour, Sir Henry
Campbell-Bannerman, Herbert Henry Asquith, David Lloyd George, Andrew Bonar Law, Stanley Baldwin, Ramsay
MacDonald, Stanley Baldwin, Ramsay MacDonald, Stanley Baldwin, Neville Chamberlain and Winston Churchill.
World War I. In June 1914, the Austrian archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist,
leading to war between those 2 countries. The system of alliances caused a local conflict to engulf the entire
continent. The United Kingdom was part of the Triple Entente with France and Russia, while the German Empire,
the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, so-called Central Powers, were allied. Following the death of the Austrian
archduke, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire attacked Serbia allied to Russia. Russia then declared war on the
Austrian-Hungarian Empire leading Germany to enter into war against Russia. The western democracy Great Britain
and France being allied with Russia, were to be dragged into the war with the German Empire. As the tension was
rising, the German Empire first declared war on France. Britain did not enter at first, but in August the Germans
invaded Belgium, and as Britain was still bound by an 1839 treaty to protect that country, it declared war on
Germany and its allies. The romantic notions of warfare that everyone had expected faded as the fighting in France
bogged down into trench warfare.
After the liner Lusitania was sunk in May 1915, taking many American passengers with it, protests by the
United States led Germany to abandon unrestricted submarine warfare for a while (it was resumed in 1917 after the
US entry into the war). A British blockade of Germany also caused widespread food and fuel shortages there. On

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other fronts, the British, French, Australians, and Japanese occupied Germany's colonies and Britain fought the
Ottoman Empire in Palestine and Mesopotamia. An Allied attempt to capture Constantinople in 1915 (the Gallipoli
Campaign) ended in disaster, costing the lives of over 200,000 men. Exhaustion and war weariness were becoming
noticeable in 1917, as the fighting in France continued with no end in sight. But that spring, the United States
entered the war, and this influx of manpower finally broke the deadlock that had existed since 1915. Meanwhile,
Russia's participation in the war was ended by economic turmoil and revolution. In the spring of 1918, Germany
could now devote most of its resources to the Western Front. The war had been won by Britain and its allies, but at a
terrible cost, creating a sentiment that wars should never be fought again. The League of Nations was founded with
the idea that nations could resolve their differences peacefully, but these hopes were unfounded.
Victorian attitudes and ideals that had continued into the first years of the 20th century changed during World
War I. The army had traditionally never been a large employer in the nation, with the regular army standing at
247,432 at the start of the war. By 1918, there were about five million people in the army and the fledgling Royal
Air Force, newly formed from the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) and the Royal Flying Corps (RFC), was about
the same size of the pre-war army. The almost 3 million casualties were known as the "lost generation," and such
numbers inevitably left society scarred; but even so, some people felt their sacrifice was little regarded in Britain.
Following the war, the UK gained the German colony of Tanganyika and part of Togoland in Africa. It also was
granted League of Nations mandates over Palestine, which was turned into a homeland for Jewish settlers, and Iraq,
created from the three Ottoman provinces in Mesopotamia. The latter became fully independent in 1932. Egypt,
which had been a British protectorate since 1882, became independent in 1922, although the British remained there
until 1952.
Irish Home Rule, Partition of Ireland and Irish Independence. The 19th century and early 20th century saw
the rise of Irish Nationalism especially among the Catholic population. Daniel O'Connell led a successful unarmed
campaign for Catholic Emancipation. A subsequent campaign for Repeal of the Act of Union failed. Later in the
century Charles Stewart Parnell and others campaigned for self-government within the Union or "Home Rule",
especially from 1900 John Redmond, the new leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party. In 1912, the Irish Party had a
further Home Rule bill passed by the House of Commons but was defeated in the House of Lords, as was the bill of
1893, but by this time the House of Lords had lost its veto on legislation under the 1911 Parliament Act and could
only delay the bill by 2 years: until it was enacted as the Government of Ireland Act 1914. During these 2 years the
threat of civil war hung over Ireland with the creation of the Unionist Ulster Volunteers opposed to the Act and their
nationalist counterparts, the Irish Volunteers supporting the Act. These 2 groups armed themselves by importing
rifles and ammunition and carried out drills openly. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 put the crisis on political
hold for the duration of the war. With the involvement of Ireland in the Great War the Unionist and Nationalist
volunteer forces joined Lord Kitcheners new British Service Army voluntarily in their thousands and suffered
crippling losses in the trenches.
A unilaterally declared "Irish Republic" was proclaimed in Dublin in 1916 during the Easter Rising. The
uprising was quelled after 6 days of fighting and most of its leaders were court-martialled by General Maxwell and
swiftly executed. This led to a major increase in support in Ireland for the insurgents. An attempt made by David
Lloyd George to introduce Home Rule at the close of the 1917-18 Irish Convention, failed due to a dual policy of
simultaneously imposing conscription on Ireland. As a result in the December 1918 General Election Sinn Féin won
a majority of seats, its MPs refusing to take their seats at Westminster, instead choosing to sit in the First Dáil
parliament in Dublin. A declaration of independence was ratified by Dáil Éireann, the self-declared Republic's
parliament in January 1919. In 1920 the Government of Ireland Act 1920 enacted the partition of Ireland along the
findings of the Irish Convention, into Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, but the latter failed to achieve
acceptance. Meanwhile, an Anglo-Irish War was fought between Crown forces and the Irish Republican Army
between January 1919 and June 1921. The Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921, negotiated between teams
representing the British and Irish Republic's governments, and ratified by 3 parliaments, established the Irish Free
State, which was initially a British Empire Dominion in the same vein as Canada or South Africa. The moribund
declared Irish Republic then triggered an Irish Civil War. The Irish Free State subsequently left the British
Commonwealth and became the Republic of Ireland after World War II, without constitutional ties with the United
Kingdom. Six northern, predominantly Protestant, Irish counties (Northern Ireland) have remained part of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland continued in name until 1927 when it was renamed as the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland by the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927. Despite
increasing political independence from each other from 1922, and complete political independence since 1949, the
union left the 2 countries intertwined with each other in many respects. Ireland used the Irish Pound from 1928 until
2001 when it was replaced by the Euro. Until it joined the ERM in 1979, the Irish pound was directly linked to the
Pound Sterling. Decimalisation of both currencies occurred simultaneously on Decimal Day in 1971. Irish Citizens
in the UK have a status almost equivalent to British Citizens. They can vote in all elections and even stand for
parliament. British Citizens have similar rights to Irish Citizens in the Republic of Ireland and can vote in all
elections apart from presidential elections and referendums. People from Northern Ireland can have dual nationality
by applying for an Irish passport in addition to, or instead of a British one.

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 Northern Ireland was created by the Government of Ireland Act 1920, enacted by the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland parliament in May 1921. Faced with divergent demands from Irish nationalists and Unionists
over the future of the island of Ireland (the former wanted an all-Irish home rule parliament to govern the entire
island, the latter no home rule at all), and the fear of civil war between both groups, the British Government under
David Lloyd George passed the Act in accordance with the findings of the 1917-18 Irish Convention, creating 2
home rule Irelands, Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland. Southern Ireland never came into being as a real
state and was superseded by the Irish Free State in 1922. That state is now known as the Republic of Ireland. Having
been given a Government of Northern Ireland in 1921 (even though they never sought self-government, and some
like Sir Edward Carson were originally bitterly opposed) the Northern Ireland government under successive prime
ministers from Sir James Craig (later Lord Craigavon) presided over discrimination against the nationalist/ Roman
Catholic minority. Northern Ireland became, in the words of Nobel Peace Prize joint-winner, Ulster Unionist Leader
and First Minister of Northern Ireland David Trimble, a "cold place for Catholics." Some local council boundaries
were gerrymandered, usually to the advantage of Protestants. Voting arrangements for local elections which gave
commercial companies votes and minimum income regulations also caused resentment.
Great Depression. The period between the two World Wars was dominated by economic weakness known as
the 'Great Depression' or the 'Great Slump'. A short-lived postwar boom in 1919–1920 soon led to a depression that
would be felt worldwide. The decade of the 1920s would be dominated by economic difficulties. Stanley Baldwin,
prime minister from 1924 to 1929, was a modest man who sought compromise among different political factions to
solve problems. One of these agreements was a major reduction in the rate of defence spending. By the late '20s,
economic performance had stabilised, but the overall situation was disappointing, and Britain had clearly fallen
behind the United States and other countries as an industrial power. Particularly hardest hit by economic problems
were the north of England and Wales, where unemployment reached 70% in some areas. The General Strike was
called during 1926 in support of the miners and their falling wages, but little improved, the downturn continued and
the Strike is often seen as the start of the slow decline of the British coal industry. In 1936, 200 unemployed men
walked from Jarrow to London in a bid to show the plight of the industrial poor, but the Jarrow March, or the
'Jarrow Crusade' as it was known, had little impact and it would not be until the coming war that industrial prospects
improved.
World War II. Britain, along with the dominions and the rest of the Empire, declared war on Nazi Germany in
1939, after the German invasion of Poland. Hostilities with Japan began in December 1941, after it attacked Hong
Kong. Britain formed close bonds with the Soviet Union (starting in 1941) and the United States (starting in 1940),
with the U.S. giving $40 billion in munitions through Lend Lease; Canada also gave aid. As France collapsed under
German onslaught in spring 1940 the British with the thinnest of margins rescued the main British army from
Dunkirk (as well as many French soldiers), leaving their munitions and supplies behind. Winston Churchill came to
power, promising to fight the Germans to the very end. The Germans threatened an invasion—which the Royal
Navy was prepared to repel. First the Germans tried to achieve air supremacy but were defeated by the Royal Air
Force in the Battle of Britain in late summer 1940.
After the failure of the Chamberlain government in 1940, the king preferred Lord Halifax as Prime Minister,
rather than Winston Churchill, but appointed Churchill because he had more support. The 2 worked smoothly
together throughout the war. Both the king and queen played major symbolic roles in the war; they were
indefatigable in visiting troops, munition factories, dockyards, and hospitals all over the country. All social classes
appreciated how the royals shared the hopes, fears and hardships of the people. The war years also saw great
improvements in working conditions and welfare provisions, which arguably paved the way for the postwar welfare
state.
Postwar. The end of World War II saw a landslide General Election victory for Clement Attlee and the Labour
Party. They were elected on a manifesto of greater social justice with left wing policies such as the creation of a
National Health Service, an expansion of the provision of council housing and nationalisation of the major
industries. The UK at the time was poor, relying heavily on loans from the United States of America (which were
finally paid off in February 2007) to rebuild its damaged infrastructure. Rationing and conscription dragged on into
the post war years, and the country suffered one of the worst winters on record. Nevertheless, morale was boosted
by events such as the marriage of Princess Elizabeth in 1947 and the Festival of Britain. As the country headed into
the 1950s, rebuilding continued and a number of immigrants from the remaining British Empire were invited to help
the rebuilding effort. As the 1950s wore on, the UK had lost its place as a superpower and could no longer maintain
its large Empire. This led to decolonisation, and a withdrawal from almost all of its colonies by 1970. Events such as
the Suez Crisis showed that the UK's status had fallen in the world. The 1950s and 1960s were, however, relatively
prosperous times after the Second World War, and saw the beginning of a modernisation of the UK, with the
construction of its first motorways for example, and also during the 1960s a great cultural movement began which
expanded across the world. The postwar period also witnessed a dramatic rise in the average standard of living, as
characterised by a 40% rise in average real wages from 1950 to 1965. Those in traditionally poorly-paid semi-skilled
and unskilled occupations saw a particularly marked improvement in their wages and living standards. The
significant real wage increases in the 1950s and '60s led to a rapid increase in working-class consumerism, with
British consumer spending rising by 45% between 1952 and 1964. In addition, entitlement to various fringe benefits

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was improved. In 1955, 96% of manual labourers were entitled to two weeks’ holiday with pay, compared with 61%
in 1951. By the end of the 1950s, Britain had become one of the world's most affluent countries. For the young and
unattached, there was, for the first time in decades, spare cash for leisure, clothes, and luxuries. In 1959, Queen
magazine declared that “Britain has launched into an age of unparalleled lavish living.” Average wages were high
while jobs were plentiful, and people saw their personal prosperity climb even higher. Prime Minister Harold
Macmillan claimed that “the luxuries of the rich have become the necessities of the poor.” Levels of disposable
income rose steadily, with the spending power of the average family rising by 50% between 1951 and 1979, and by
the end of the 70s, 6 out of 10 families had come to own a car. Between 1950 and 1970, however, Britain was
overtaken by most of the countries of the European Common Market in terms of the number of telephones,
refrigerators, television sets, cars, and washing machines per 100 of the population. British standard of living was
increasing, the standard of living in other countries increased faster. In addition, while educational opportunities for
working-class people had widened significantly since the end of the Second World War, a number of developed
countries came to overtake Britain in some educational indicators. By the early 1980s, some 80% to 90% of school
leavers in France and West Germany received vocational training, compared with 40% in the United Kingdom. By
the mid-1980s, over 80% of pupils in the United States and West Germany and over 90% in Japan stayed in
education until the age of 18, compared with barely 33% of British pupils.
Empire to Commonwealth. Britain's control over its Empire loosened during the interwar period. Nationalism
strengthened in other parts of the empire, particularly in India and in Egypt. Between 1867 and 1910, the UK had
granted Australia, Canada, and New Zealand "Dominion" status (near complete autonomy within the Empire). They
became charter members of the British Commonwealth of Nations (known as the Commonwealth of Nations since
1949), an informal but close-knit association that succeeded the British Empire. Beginning with the independence of
India and Pakistan in 1947, the remainder of the British Empire was almost completely dismantled. Today, most of
Britain's former colonies belong to the Commonwealth, almost all of them as independent members. There are,
however, 13 former British colonies, including Bermuda, Gibraltar, the Falkland Islands, and others, which have
elected to continue their political links with London and are known as British Overseas Territories. Although often
marked by economic and political nationalism, the Commonwealth offers the United Kingdom a voice in matters
concerning many developing countries, and is a forum for those countries to raise concerns. Notable non-members
of the Commonwealth are Ireland, the United States and the former middle-eastern colonies and protectorates. In
addition, the Commonwealth helps preserve many institutions deriving from British experience and models, such as
Westminster-style parliamentary democracy, in those countries.
From the Troubles to the Belfast Agreement. In the 1960s, moderate unionist Prime Minister of Northern
Ireland Terence O'Neill tried to reform the system and give a greater voice to Catholics who comprised 40% of the
population of Northern Ireland. His goals were blocked by militant Protestants led by the Ian Paisley. The increasing
pressures from nationalists for reform and from unionists for No surrender led to the appearance of the civil rights
movement under figures like John Hume, Austin Currie and others. Clashes escalated out of control as the army
could barely contain the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Ulster Defence Association. British
leaders feared their withdrawal would give a "Doomsday Scenario," with widespread communal strife, followed by
the mass exodus of hundreds of thousands of refugees. London shut down Northern Ireland's parliament and began
direct rule. By the 1990s, the failure of the IRA (Provisional Irish Republican Army) campaign to win mass public
support or achieve its aim of a British withdrawal led to negotiations that in 1998 produced the 'Good Friday
Agreement'. It won popular support and largely ended the Troubles.
Common Market (EEC), then EU, membership. Britain's wish to join the Common Market (as the European
Economic Community was known in Britain) was first expressed in July 1961 by the Macmillan government, was
negotiated by Edward Heath as Lord Privy Seal, but was vetoed in 1963 by French President Charles de Gaulle.
After initially hesitating over the issue, Harold Wilson's Labour Government lodged the UK's second application (in
May 1967) to join the European Community, as it was now called. Like the first, though, it was vetoed by de Gaulle
in November that year. In 1973, as Conservative Party leader and Prime Minister, Heath negotiated terms for
admission and Britain finally joined the Community, alongside Denmark and Ireland. In opposition, the Labour
Party was deeply divided, though its Leader, Harold Wilson, remained in favour. In the 1974 General Election, the
Labour Party manifesto included a pledge to renegotiate terms for Britain's membership and then hold a referendum
on whether to stay in the EC on the new terms. This was a constitutional procedure without precedent in British
history. In the subsequent referendum campaign, rather than the normal British tradition of "collective
responsibility", under which the government takes a policy position which all cabinet members are required to
support publicly, members of the Government (and the Conservative opposition) were free to present their views on
either side of the question. A referendum was duly held on 5 June 1975, and the proposition to continue membership
was passed with a substantial majority. The Single European Act (SEA) was the first major revision of the 1957
Treaty of Rome. In 1987/7, the Conservative government under Margaret Thatcher enacted it into UK law. The
Maastricht Treaty transformed the European Community into the European Union. In 1992, the Conservative
government under John Major ratified it, against the opposition of his backbench Maastricht Rebels. The Treaty of
Lisbon introduced many changes to the treaties of the Union. Prominent changes included more qualified majority
voting in the Council of Ministers, increased involvement of the European Parliament in the legislative process

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through extended codecision with the Council of Ministers, eliminating the pillar system and the creation of a
President of the European Council with a term of two and a half years and a High Representative of the Union for
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy to present a united position on EU policies. The Treaty of Lisbon will also make
the Union's human rights charter, the Charter of Fundamental Rights, legally binding. The Lisbon Treaty also leads
to an increase in the voting weight of the UK in the Council of the European Union from 8.4% to 12.4%. In July
2008, the Labour government under Gordon Brown approved the treaty and the Queen ratified it.
Devolution for Scotland and Wales. On 11 September 1997, (on the 700th anniversary of the Scottish victory
over the English at the Battle of Stirling Bridge), a referendum was held on establishing a devolved Scottish
Parliament. This resulted in an overwhelming 'yes' vote both to establishing the parliament and granting it limited
tax varying powers. Two weeks later, a referendum in Wales on establishing a Welsh Assembly was also approved
but with a very narrow majority. The first elections were held, and these bodies began to operate, in 1999. The
creation of these bodies has widened the differences between the Countries of the United Kingdom, especially in
areas like healthcare. It has also brought to the fore the so-called West Lothian question which is a complaint that
devolution for Scotland and Wales but not England has created a situation where all the MPs in the UK parliament
can vote on matters affecting England alone but on those same matters Scotland and Wales can make their own
decisions.
21st century
War in Afghanistan and Iraq, and terrorist attacks at home. In the 2001 General Election, the Labour Party won
a 2nd successive victory, though voter turnout dropped to the lowest level for more than 80 years. Later that year, the
September 11th attacks in the United States led to American President George W. Bush launching the War on Terror,
beginning with the invasion of Afghanistan aided by British troops in October 2001. Thereafter, with the US focus
shifting to Iraq, Tony Blair decided to support the United States in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, despite huge anti-war
marches held in London and Glasgow. Forty-six thousand British troops, one-third of the total strength of the British
Army's land forces, were deployed to assist with the invasion of Iraq and thereafter British armed forces were
responsible for security in southern Iraq in the run-up to the Iraqi elections of January 2005. The Labour Party won
the 2005 general election and a 3rd consecutive term in office despite support dropping to just 35% of those who
voted. However the effects of the War on Terror following 9/11 increased the threat of international terrorists
plotting attacks against the UK. On 7 July 2005, a series of 4 suicide bombings struck London's public transport
system during the morning rush hour. The 4 incidents killed a total of 52 commuters, in addition to the 4 bombers.
Later in 2007, Muslim extremists drove a car, loaded with propane canisters, into the glass doors of Glasgow
International Airport, setting it ablaze. The intention was to drive the vehicle into the airport and have the car
explode inside the terminal, but the car was hindered by security bollards, causing no civilian deaths.
Nationalist government in Scotland. 2007 saw the first ever election victory for the pro-independence Scottish
National Party (SNP) in the Scottish Parliament elections. They formed a minority government with plans to hold a
referendum before 2011 to seek a mandate "to negotiate with the Government of the United Kingdom to achieve
independence for Scotland." Most opinion polls show minority support for independence, although support varies
depending on the nature of the question. The response of the unionist parties was to establish the Calman
Commission to examine further devolution of powers, a position that had the support of the Prime Minister.
Responding to the findings of the review, the UK government announced on 25 November 2009, that new powers
would be devolved to the Scottish Government, notably on how it can raise tax and carry out capital borrowing, and
the running of Scottish Parliament elections. These proposals were detailed in a white paper setting out a new
Scotland Bill, to become law before the 2015 Holyrood elections. The proposal was criticised by the UK parliament
opposition parties for not proposing to implement any changes before the next general election. Scottish
Constitution Minister Michael Russell criticised the white paper, calling it "flimsy" and stating that their proposed
Referendum (Scotland) Bill, 2010, whose own white paper was to be published 5 days later, would be "more
substantial". According to The Independent, the Calman Review white paper proposals fall short of what would
normally be seen as requiring a referendum. The 2011 election saw a decisive victory for the SNP (Scottish National
Party) which was able to form a majority government intent on delivering a referendum on independence. Within
hours of the victory, Prime Minister David Cameron guaranteed that the UK government would not put any legal or
political obstacles in the way of such a referendum. Some unionist politicians, including former Labour First
Minister Henry McLeish, have responded to the situation by arguing that Scotland should be offered 'devo-max' as
an alternative to independence, and First Minister Alex Salmond has signalled his willingness to include it on the
referendum ballot paper.
The 2008 economic crisis. In the wake of the global economic crisis of 2008, the United Kingdom economy
contracted, experiencing negative economic growth throughout 2009. The announcement in November 2008 that the
economy had shrunk for the first time since late 1992 brought an end to 16 years of continuous economic growth.
Causes included an end to the easy credit of the preceding years, reduction in consumption and substantial
depreciation of sterling (which fell 25% against the euro between January 2008 and January 2009), leading to
increased import costs, notably of oil. On 8 October 2008, the British Government announced a bank rescue package
of around £500 billion ($850 billion at the time). The plan comprised 3 parts.: £200 billion to be made available to
the banks in the Bank of England's Special Liquidity Scheme; the Government was to increase the banks' market

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capitalization, through the Bank Recapitalization Fund, with an initial £25 billion and another £25 billion to be
provided if needed; and the Government was to temporarily underwrite any eligible lending between British banks
up to around £250 billion. With the UK officially coming out of recession in the 4 th quarter of 2009 - ending 6
consecutive quarters of economic decline - the Bank of England decided against further quantitative easing.
The 2010 coalition government. The United Kingdom General Election of 6 May 2010 resulted in the first hung
parliament since 1974, with the Conservative Party winning the largest number of seats, but falling short of the 326
seats required for an overall majority. Following this, the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats agreed to form
the first coalition government for the UK since the end of the Second World War, with David Cameron becoming
Prime Minister and Nick Clegg Deputy Prime Minister. Under the coalition government, British military aircraft
participated in the UN-mandated intervention in the 2011 Libyan civil war, flying a total of 3,000 air sorties against
forces loyal to the Libyan dictator Muammar Gaddafi between March and October 2011. 2011 also saw England
suffer unprecedented rioting in its major cities in early August, killing 5 people and causing over £200 million worth
of property damage. In late October 2011, the Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations voted to
grant gender equality in the British royal succession, ending the male-preference primogeniture that was mandated
by the 1701 Act of Settlement.