Technical Note No.

24
CORROSION

Introduction charged electrode (known as the anode) to the

more positively charged electrode (known as the
Any corrosion of metals used for external cathode). At the anode the metal will continue
cladding may affect the appearance and to go into solution to replace the lost electrons
eventually structural integrity of the facade. and maintain the potential. The excess electrons
This Technical Note presents the basic theory of at the cathode may be used up by the formation
corrosion, indicates the conditions under which of hydroxyl ions from dissolved air and water
it may occur and the means by which its although other reactions can occur in some
occurrence and consequences may be circumstances. In the solution, the metal ions
minimised. can combine with the hydroxyl ions to form the
metal hydroxide, which can react with further
Corrosion mechanism dissolved oxygen to form the oxide.

Most metals are only found in nature as The same process can occur on a single piece of
minerals in which the metal is combined with metal in water, with potential differences
other elements. Production of the pure metal generated by slightly different environmental
requires processes in which energy is expended conditions or slightly different properties of
and the resulting metal is not in an inherently different grains in the metal structure.
stable form. Given time it will react with
chemicals in the environment to revert to stable This process is used for beneficial purposes in
compounds. This process is known as corrosion. batteries but is also the basic mechanism of
metal corrosion. Corrosion protection involves
Direct reaction between metals and dry air interfering with this process in order to retain
results in the formation of an oxide film on the the component’s appearance and mechanical
surface. As the film grows it prevents contact properties.
between the metal and air thus preventing
further reaction. The destructive corrosion of Although both oxygen and water are required
metals in the natural environment normally for electrochemical corrosion, air with a relative
occurs by an aqueous electrochemical humidity greater than 70% contains sufficient
mechanism. moisture to facilitate the corrosion of steel.
Corrosion may occur at lower relative
When a metal is suspended in water some of the humidities if hygroscopic salts are present. A
metal atoms dissolve to form ions and the metal potential difference is also required for
develops an electrical potential as a result of the corrosion to occur. The potential difference may
presence of electrons left behind. Different result from different metals in contact,
metals in the same solution will have different heterogeneity within a single metal, differences
solubilities and generate different potentials. If in environmental conditions or differences in
they are connected by an external circuit an stress level. The rate of corrosion will depend
electric current will flow; in effect a battery will on the availability of water and oxygen, the
be created. Electrons will flow though the magnitude of the potential difference, the
external circuit from the more negatively relative sizes of the anode and cathode and the

© CWCT 1999 January 2000

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presence of chemicals in the water. Substances, used without further protection and is
including sulphur compounds and sodium commonly used to protect steel.
chloride can accelerate the reaction by
increasing the conductivity of the electrolyte When lead is exposed to normal atmospheric
(e.g. water) and breaking down protective oxide conditions and rainwater it forms an insoluble
films. Thus corrosion rates are relatively low in protective film however in some conditions,
clean rural environments but are much higher in where access to carbon dioxide is limited, the
industrial atmospheres polluted with acidic corrosion products are soluble and do not
sulphur dioxide, or in marine environments provide protection. An example is condensation
where chloride ions are present. on the underside of lead sheet. The risk of
condensation can be reduced by designing in
Types of corrosion accordance with BS 5250 and BS 6229.

The effects of corrosion on a metal can vary Galvanic or bi-metallic corrosion

from a slight surface discolouration to deep Galvanic (or bi-metallic) corrosion can be
pitting, depending on the type of metal and particularly severe and often arises at design
cause of the corrosion. Corrosion can be details where two metals or alloys having
classified according to the manner in which it is different compositions are electrically coupled
manifest. Uniform corrosion will occur on while exposed to an electrolyte (e.g. water), as
unprotected metals subject to uniform exposure. described above.
Other types of corrosion tend to start at defects
or discontinuities in the protective coating Different metals in solution will have
and/or at localised areas of increased characteristic potentials allowing metals to be
exposure/wetness. placed in order in the galvanic series (Table 1).
When placed in contact, the more anodic metal
Uniform corrosion will corrode leaving the more cathodic metal
Uniform corrosion occurs with equivalent protected. For example in the case of zinc and
intensity over the entire exposed surface. It is steel, the anodic zinc will corrode preferentially
probably the most tolerable form of corrosion to the cathodic steel.
since it can be relatively easy to predict and can
be allowed for in design by providing an Increasingly active (anodic) Magnesium
additional sacrificial thickness of metal to allow Zinc
for loss of section over the life of the
component. Familiar examples of uniform Aluminium
corrosion include the general rusting of steel Mild steel
and iron based products and the tarnishing of
Cast iron
brass window/door hardware.
Stainless steels1
All metals used in cladding are potentially Lead
subject to uniform corrosion but many,
including copper, aluminium and stainless steel, Brasses
form a tightly bound layer of corrosion product Copper alloys
which protects the metal surface from continued
Stainless steel2
attack.
Increasingly passive (cathodic) Titanium
Steel and zinc are subject to ongoing corrosion. Note
Uniform corrosion normally results in an 1. active state - oxide film disrupted/steel exposed
unacceptable rate of decay of unprotected 2. passive state - oxide film intact
external steel. The rate of corrosion of zinc is Table 1 Cladding metals in the
very much slower than for steel and zinc may be electrochemical series
The rate of galvanic attack depends on:

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The difference in electrical potential of the Further guidance on the effects of different
dissimilar metals (the further apart the combinations of metals is given in PD 6484.
metals are in the electrochemical series, the
greater is the difference in electrode Crevice corrosion
potential and the more aggressive is the Crevice corrosion occurs in crevices and
attack on the anode), recesses, or under deposits of dirt or corrosion

The relative anode-to-cathode surface areas products, where there is localised depletion of
that are exposed to the electrolyte (for a dissolved oxygen. Such conditions can initiate
given cathode area, a smaller anode will corrosion of some normally resistant metals (e.g.
corrode more rapidly than a larger one), aluminium and stainless steel) by preventing the
formation of the natural protective oxide film.

The electrolyte (galvanic corrosion is more Crevice corrosion can be particularly damaging
serious with soft water and with oxygen as it is both localised and likely to occur for
starvation). relatively long periods as by its nature it takes
place at locations that do not dry out rapidly.
Thus:
Surfaces located below projections are not rain-

when iron is in contact with copper, the iron washed, enabling dirt to accumulate and
is anodic and corrodes at an accelerated rate moisture to be retained at the metal surface,
whilst the copper is protected; however underneath which crevice corrosion can begin.
Water can also become trapped at many details

when iron is in contact with zinc, the iron is and interfaces, for example:
cathodic and protected, whilst the zinc is
anodic and corrodes - this principle is
Between lap joints of sheeting, or between
exploited in galvanised steel. sheets and support rails,
Because of the difference in electrical potential,
Between bolted plates and underneath bolt
neither copper nor brass should be used in heads,
contact with zinc or zinc alloy coated steels

Where sheets project into gutters,
because the galvanic reaction can cause the
coating to fail rapidly, especially in polluted
Within small welding imperfections or
atmospheres. Contact between copper and furrows across the surface of polished metal
aluminium should also be avoided. panels.

A number of measures may be taken to Crevice corrosion may be prevented by using

significantly reduce the effects of galvanic non-absorbent gaskets, by removing
corrosion, including: accumulated deposits frequently and avoiding
details that trap water.

Electrically isolate dissimilar metals from
each other; Pitting corrosion

Avoid an unfavourable anode-cathode Pitting corrosion is another form of very
surface area ratio by using an anode area as localised corrosion in which small anodic areas
large as possible; in contact with large cathodic areas corrode to
form pits or holes. They ordinarily penetrate

Ensure moisture is unlikely to accumulate from the top of a horizontal surface downwards
between dissimilar metals over long periods; in a nearly vertical direction. A pit may be

If coupling of dissimilar metals is initiated by a localised surface defect such as a
unavoidable, choose two that are close scratch or a slight variation in material
together in the galvanic series. composition.

In steel it is an extremely insidious type of

corrosion, often going undetected as the volume

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of corrosion product is small. In aluminium the Concrete and mortars made from Portland
volume of corrosion product is very much cement or lime can initiate a slow corrosive
greater than the volume of the pit. The corrosion attack on lead in the presence of moisture. In
reaction can therefore be inhibited by self- situations where drying out and carbonation of
sealing of the pit. the free lime in wet concrete or mortar is likely
to be slow, lead should be protected with a thick
Filiform corrosion coat of bitumen paint. Lead flashings turned
Filiform corrosion is the growth of thread-like into masonry joints or chases in concrete not
strands or filaments of corrosion that develop more than 40mm wide are not generally
beneath coatings. The first evidence of filiform considered to need any protection because here
corrosion was found in the aeronautical industry carbonation of free lime is rapid reducing the
and only after 1980 was it detected in risk of attack.
architectural metalwork. It can occur on steel
When lead cladding, roof coverings and
but is of more concern in relation to organically
weatherings are applied to concrete surfaces, a
coated aluminium.
sealing coat of hard-drying bitumen paint on the
Filiform corrosion originates in areas less concrete together with an underlay gives
protected or not protected by the coating such as adequate protection during the drying out
pores, scratches, cut edges, rims or surfaces period.
where the coating thickness is thin, and in
Timber (including preservatives)
general those parts where water may
accumulate. It only occurs in atmospheres with a Some timbers, particularly western red cedar,
high humidity and is more likely to occur in oak, sweet chestnut and Douglas fir, contain
marine zones. organic acids which can attack metals including
copper, zinc, aluminium and lead. Some timber
Filiform corrosion may be prevented by a high preservatives, notably copper chrome arsenate,
standard of pre-treatment and coating also contain chemicals that can attack metals.
application, careful detailing to ensure free The resulting corrosion of fixings embedded in
drainage of water and careful handling of timber can cause breakdown of the timber and
panels. loss of holding power of the fixings (nail
sickness).
Factors affecting corrosion
The moisture content of the timber affects the
Mortar/concrete rate of corrosion of the embedded metal and
Mortar and concrete are highly alkaline there is a low risk of corrosion if the moisture
although this alkalinity may be lost by reaction content of the wood is kept below 20%. Where
with carbon dioxide in the air in a process the moisture content of the wood may exceed
known as carbonation. Aluminium, zinc and 20% corrosion resistant metals should be used
lead all react with concrete; conversely, iron for embedded fixings. The choice of metal will
relies upon the alkalinity of concrete to protect depend on the life required and generally
it from corrosion whilst copper is unaffected. increases from galvanised steel through
The protection of steel by concrete is aluminium and copper to stainless steel.
fundamental to the durability of reinforced
Aluminium and lead sheet can be protected with
concrete.
bituminous paint where they are in contact with
Aluminium reacts vigorously with wet concrete run-off from new oak and cedar. The chemicals
to produce hydrogen, but is not usually severely in the timber will leach out during the first few
attacked by contact with set mortar or concrete. years. Copper cannot be protected by
Zinc is not so severely attacked by cement bituminous paint and should not be exposed to
products as aluminium but reacts in a similar run-off from cedar shingles.
manner by giving off hydrogen gas.

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Sealants Pollution can lead to pitting of aluminium
although this may be self-limiting due to the
Acids, which are exuded during the curing of
isolating effect of the corrosion products.
certain sealants, may cause corrosion of some
metals, for example corrosion of lead by acid-
Corrosion of all commonly used grades of
cure silicones. The corrosion may only result in
stainless steel may occur in polluted, marine or
the formation of an oxide deposit, but this can
chlorinated environments. Grades containing
be unsightly. More serious problems may be
higher quantities of alloying elements have
encountered if acid-cure silicones are used in
greater resistance to corrosion. In certain
contact with galvanised steel as the galvanising
circumstances, corrosion may be reduced by
may be damaged, facilitating corrosion of the
regular washing to remove contamination.
substrate.
The above discussion relates to general
The compatibility of sealants with metal
atmospheric corrosion. Most metals will be
substrates should always be checked with the
attacked by very severe conditions such as direct
sealant manufacturer. Site substitution of a
contact with flue gasses.
specified sealant with a cheaper alternative
should be avoided. Salt
Bitumen Exposure to chloride in marine atmospheres,
swimming pools or from road de-icing salts is a
When exposed to ultra violet radiation, bitumen
major cause of corrosion. Chloride may increase
can form highly acidic compounds which if
the risk of corrosion by breaking down
washed onto copper can lead to corrosion.
protective oxide films and the rate of corrosion
Protecting bitumen from light and water will
may be increased due to the increased electrical
avoid this problem as will ensuring that run-off
conductivity of the water.
from areas of bitumen does not come in contact
with copper components. The effects on different metals are generally as
described for pollution above.
Temperature
Like most chemical reactions, corrosion will Stainless steel can corrode when in contact with
occur at a faster rate as the temperature aluminium in the presence of chloride.
increases. Where the temperature is greater than
70oC steel may corrode preferentially to zinc. Corrosion protection

Algae, moss and lichen Selection of material/composition

Algae, moss and lichens may produce organic The most common and easiest way of
acids, which can attack aluminium, copper, lead preventing corrosion is through the judicious
and zinc. selection of materials, once the corrosion
environment has been characterised. However,
Pollution it is not always feasible to use the material that
offers the optimum corrosion resistance and
Industrial pollution increases the rate of general
sometimes another alloy and/or some other
corrosion of steel and zinc. For example the life
measure must be used.
of a zinc coating in a polluted atmosphere is
likely to be about half that in a non-polluted
Copper, aluminium, lead, and stainless steel
atmosphere.
have good resistance to corrosion and do not
generally require protection provided the factors
Copper and lead are not significantly affected by
affecting corrosion discussed above are avoided.
normal levels of pollution although industrial
Although zinc corrodes when exposed to normal
processes producing acetic acid can lead to
external conditions, the rate of corrosion is slow
attack of lead and copper which may be affected
and a 200 micron thickness can be expected to
by very high levels of sulfur.

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last 20 to 40 years depending on the level of to be protected, making it a cathode. The
pollution. Where a longer life is required electrons may be supplied by a sacrificial anode
additional protection can be provided. Plain or a low voltage power source. Cathodic
carbon steel normally requires protection protection is being increasingly used for
against corrosion. remedial work on reinforced concrete structures
but is unlikely to be appropriate in most
Organic coatings cladding situations.
Organic coatings can be applied on site or under
Design
factory conditions and create a physical barrier
to the corrosive elements. They must maintain a Since the longer the period of wetness the
high degree of adhesion to the metal substrate greater the corrosion, it is important that
through careful surface pre-treatment and will structures should be designed as far as possible
have a finite life requiring periodic to shed rather than trap water and allow
maintenance. Some coatings (e.g. polyester complete drainage. Prevention of dirt build up
powder coatings) do not provide protection by allowing rain-washing of exposed surfaces
against corrosion of steel and steel substrates will also help to prevent corrosion. Design to
and should therefore be pre-treated (e.g. prevent condensation and ventilation to aid
galvanised) before application of such finishes. drying of condensation or penetrating water will
Coatings are discussed in greater detail in also reduce the risk of corrosion.
Technical Note 25 Selection of applied finishes
for metals. Local extreme conditions can have a severe,
adverse effect on the durability of metals. The
Metal coatings strength of the prevailing wind and the
regularity of its direction, as well as humidity
The performance of a metal coating will depend
and the duration of exposure affect the rate of
on whether it is anodic or cathodic to the base
corrosion. For example, severe corrosion can
metal. A cathodic coating (for example copper
occur when a metal is partly exposed but
on steel) will only protect the base metal by
sheltered, such as under the eaves or canopy of a
forming a barrier. If there are defects in the
building. This is particularly true in coastal and
coating, rapid local corrosion of the base metal
severely polluted environments where
may occur. An anodic coating (for example zinc
aggressive salts can lodge themselves in areas
on steel) will act as a barrier but if there are
that are not washed by rainwater, but where
small defects it will continue to provide
moisture is present due to condensation.
protection by corroding preferentially to the
base metal as a result of galvanic action.
Maintenance
The most commonly used metal coating is zinc The risk of corrosion can be reduced by regular
on steel which may be achieved by a number of maintenance. This should include:
processes including hot dip galvanising, zinc
plating and sherardizing. These processes are
repair or replacement of protective coatings,
described in Technical Note 22 Cladding metals
1 – ferrous metals. Aluminium coating of steel
cleaning metal surfaces (particularly in the
and chromium plating of steel and brass are also case of aluminium and stainless steel),
used. Chromium plating of steel is an example
of a cathodic coating.
maintenance of drainage systems,

Cathodic protection
maintenance of seals.

One of the most effective means of preventing
corrosion is cathodic protection, which can in
Summary
some situations completely stop corrosion.
This Technical Note has described the types of
Cathodic protection simply involves supplying
corrosion that can potentially occur with metal
electrons, from an external source, to the metal

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cladding/roofing panels and associated
metalwork. Means of preventing or delaying the
onset of corrosion have also been identified,
including material selection, material protection,
and the design of details.

References and Bibliography

BS 5250, 1995, Code of practice for control of

condensation in buildings, British Standards
Institution.

BS 6229, 1982, Code of practice for flat roofs

with continuously supported coverings, British
Standards Institution.

PD 6484, 1990, Commentary on corrosion of

bimetallic contacts and its alleviation, British
Standards Institution.

© CWCT 2000

CWCT Technical Notes 1 – 30 have been part-funded

by the DETR under research contract 39/3/338 (CI 1354)
University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2
7AY
Tel: 01225 826541; Fax: 01225 826556; email:
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