What is Politics?

Politics , in its broadest sense , is the activity through which people make ,
preserve and amend the general rules under which they live. (Heywood , 2007. It
had its etymology from a Greek word polis which means city-states. City - states of
ancient Greece were independent political entities of which Sparta and Athens were
the most prominent. Thus politics is associated with the activities related to the
government of the state. The following theorists offer different definitions of what
politics is:

 Karl Marx, defined politics as “ceaseless struggle for power”

 David Easton, viewed politics as “ authoriitative allocation of values which are
binding in the society”.
 Harold Lasswell, defined politics as “who gets what , when and how”?

In the modern day usage , politics denotes a process in the social system in which
the goals of that system are selected and ordered in terms of priority in the
allocation of resources. Individuals , groups or institutions authorized to formulate
and implement policies and programs in behalf of the rest of the members of the
society do the allocation of resources through authoritative decisions.

The term “politics” derives from the Greek word “Politika,” which literally means
“affairs of the cities.” The concept of politics is rather complex as it includes:

The decision-making process aimed at creating and implementing laws and norms
within a country;
The act of governing a country or a community;
The act of controlling the country’s military apparatus;
The act of creating strategies aimed at improving the lives of all citizens; and
The act of managing the country’s economic resources.

The idea of politics is often associated with negative connotations, In fact, rulers,
governments and politicians are often seen as corrupt and selfish entities, focused on
maximizing personal gains rather than on promoting general welfare across the
population.

 
What is Political Science?
Political Science is the systematic study of Politics, or the process by which
governmental decisions are made. As a famous definition puts it, politics is
determining who gets what, where, when, and how. The political scientist is an
objective observer who asks questions about and studies the effects and structures
of different systems of governments
A Brief History of Political Science
Political science originated with the ancient Greeks in the first century BCE. During
this time, the philosopher Plato wrote numerous dialogues about politics, asking
about the nature of justice, what constitutes good government, and what is truly
best for humanity. His student Aristotle worked in a more scientific way, observing
and describing types of governments systematically. At the start of the seventeenth
century, people began to apply the methods of the scientific revolution to politics.
Thomas Hobbes, for example, employed the methods of geometry to break
government down into its most basic parts in order to understand it. In the
nineteenth century, thinkers such as Karl Marx and Max Weber used sociological
methods to analyze politics.

Why study Political Science?

One cannot avoid politics. Political Science prepares the individual to think more
clearly about oneself and about one’s relationship with others , to be more careful in
one’s judgments of the unfamiliar and to be more tolerant of diverse opinions thrown
in one’s path. Political Science aims to educate and develop the citizenry , the values
of civic and political consciousness( Maguigad, 2005)

How is Political Science Related to other Disciplines?

Aristotle has called Political Science „The Master Science‟ as it deals with human
beings who is a social being having many dimensions; historical, political,
economical, psychological, sociological etc. Political Science is concerned with the
political aspect of this social man and his interaction with the various dimensions of
his social life, be it economical, social, psychological, sociological, historical etc. One
question which comes to mind, therefore, is it correct to call Political Science „the
master science‟ or is it just one of the social sciences? Until 18th Century
specialization of Political Science didn‟t exist since various aspects of society was
studied under single discipline known as „moral philosophy‟

What distinguishes political science as an academic discipline is its emphasis on

government and power. However, the study of government and power is not
confined to political science: it naturally permeates into other social sciences and
hence its association with the other social sciences and the growth of
interdisciplinary study in social sciences. According to Easton, “Specialization in social
sciences has stimulated a movement towards a reintegration of our
compartmentalized knowledge; which should go a long way towards remedying
these defects. Even though the future must witness an increase in the rate of cross-
fertilization and in the degree of cooperation among the social sciences, there are
few realists who envision the ultimate fusion and disappearance of all specialties into
one body of knowledge3 ”. In fact it was the growth of empirical theory in political
science which developed after the Second World War which shifted the focus from
the study of state and government to the study of political behaviour and attitudes.
It was this application of scientific methods to the study of political phenomenon and
behavoiralism which brought in the need for interdisciplinary study of political
science. Thus Easton has rightly commented, “Theoretical revolution in the study of
the political phenomena, in the form of empirical theory has opened the door to a
new and more meaningful relationship between political science and the other
disciplines”

Thus political science borrowed many theories and concepts, methods and
techniques from other social sciences. For example decision making theory from
organizational field, structural functional approach from sociology and anthropology,
action theory from sociology, system analysis from communication sciences etc. even
new concepts like political culture, political socialization, political communication,
political development etc are being adopted and hence emphasis is being laid on the
study of community power structure5 . Hence one could say that it is this so called
behavioral revolution in social science and the growth of empirical enquiry to the
issues of politics which has given rise to the interdisciplinary approach in political
science. The following section deals with the relation of political science with some of
the other social sciences.

Political Science and History

John Seeley once remarked that, “History without Political Science has no fruit
and Political Science without History has no root.” Seeley might have exaggerated
the relationship between the two yet there is intimate relationship between the two
social sciences and they borrow heavily from each other. The political science deals
with state and institutions related with it which have their roots in history and in
order to understand them fully one has to trace their historical evolution. History
through its vast resources provides good scope for comparative
analysis of political structures and institutions of different times to arrive at the best
possible ideal.

Political Science and Sociology

Sociology is the science which deals with human beings and their social
relationship. Political science deals with the political activities of men. Political
activities influences and is influenced by the social life of men. Political science
studies state, government and power mostly while sociology provides sociological
background to the forms of government, the nature of governmental organs, the
laws and sphere of the state activities as determined by the social processes7 . As
political science deals with state sociology also studies state as one of the human
association

Political Science and Psychology

Political science and psychology are closely related to each other and their
merging has given rise to a new discipline called „political psychology‟ which tries to
use theories and facts to explain and understand political problems. The State and its
political institutions are the products of the human mind and can best be understood
in terms of the mind.

Political Science and Ethics

Ethics is concerned with normative questions such as „what ought to be‟,

although political science too deals with the normative issues in the pursuit of an
ideal political order but it is not confined to them alone. Though both Political
Science and Ethics aim at the noble and righteous life of man, yet the former is
primarily concerned with the political governance of man whereas the latter refers to
man's conduct and morality; that is, whereas Political Science deals with political
order, Ethics deals with moral order.

Political Science and Economics

The scholars of ancient Greece regarded economics as a sub-division of political

science. Both political science and economics is concerned with the welfare of
mankind and his relationship with the society and hence Adam Smith regarded them
as parts of the same subject.The government controls foreign trade, currency
system, mending and borrowing. All these and other are economic issues which
require political approach for permanent solution. In fact a successful welfare
programme required close collaboration between political scientists, economists and
politicians.

Political Science and Anthropology

The collaboration between Political Science and Anthropology particularly in the

field of concepts and methodologies is tremendously beneficial for both the
discipline. Anthropology deals with racial divisions of man, his physical character, his
geographic division, his environmental and social relations, and his cultural
development. It is a science which studies mankind in relation to physical, social, and
cultural development. Political anthropology challenges the illusion of the “autonomy
of the political” assumed by political science to characterize so-called modern
societies. The contribution of Anthropology to Political Science is considerable, and
modern researches in the racial division, habits, customs, and organisations of
primitive man help us to know the real origin of the State and the development of
various political institutions

Political Science and Geography:

In a rapidly changing international environment, the issues of economic, political

and social security are gaining prominence and in this context the tools of political
science and geography are increasingly becoming important for understanding and
analysing global problems and arriving at policy alternatives. The two disciplines
have been associated through the sub-fields of political geography, which covers
geographical differences in voting patterns, for example, and through geo-politics
which examines how the great powers influence other parts of the planet. These
days, in a context of globalisation, interdisciplinary understandings of
socioenvironmental issues are becoming increasing key to solving the problems of
the future such as political instability in parts of the developing world as a result of
climate change, for example. Environmental politics, and the politics of the
environment, are becoming ever more important.

In the last few decades, political science has become more solidly established.
Political professionals work on campaigns (as well as news shows) at all levels to
help sway voters, and many elected officials analyze data to help make policy
choices. Today, many political scientists use statistics and other quantitative methods
to study a variety of issues, such as voting, Congress, and the presidency.
Political scientists rely on several important concepts:

Power: The ability to get others to do what you want. Power can take many forms,
from brute force to articulate persuasion.

Government: The organization of power within a society, specifically how power is

divided and used.
Example: The government of the Philippines is a democracy established by the
Constitution.

Regime: Any particular government.

Legitimacy: Occurs when citizens accept the political decisions made by the

governing body. A government is considered Legitimate if its citizens think it right,
lawful, and proper that the government should hold power. A threat to legitimacy
seriously undermines the power of the government.

Authority: The ability of the government to exercise power without resorting to

violence. A government with a high level of legitimacy tends to have a high level of
authority. Its citizens usually obey the law because they think it is the right thing to
do, not because they are afraid of punishment.
Example: When asked by a police officer to clear the street, most of the people
will do so because they respect the right of the officer to use power.

Sovereignty: The right to exercise political power over a group of people or a

geographical area. A government is considered Sovereign if it has the final word on
political decisions within its boundaries. When citizens can appeal to a higher body,
the government is not sovereign.

As suggested by the name itself, “political science” is the study of theory and
practice of politics and government at all levels: local, national, and international.
Within the broad basket of political science, we can identify various subcategories,
including:

Political theory; this subject focuses on the roots of governance and on the human
aspects that lead men to organize themselves in political groups;

Comparative politics: this subject compares different types of governance (i.e.

democracy, military regime, authoritarian regime, etc.) and analyzes their effects on
the country’s growth and on the population’s welfare;

Methodology: this subfield aims at clarifying the philosophical and theoretical basis
upon which different political systems are based; and

International relations: this subcategory focuses on the relations among states, on

their interactions and on the political strategies that countries use at an international
level.

All subcategories of political science provide a comprehensive theoretical background

that allows us to interpret, understand and critically analyze a government’s policies
and decisions.
Similarities between Politics and Political Science

Both politics and political science focus on governance and refer to the state of
affairs of a given country – even though political science provides a more
comprehensive and theoretical approach to the matter. Even though the two terms
have a different meaning, politics and political science have some aspects in
common:

In both cases, the government and the structure of the country’s political system
are the main subjects concerned;

Politics and policies are often based on theoretical ideas and assumptions
outlined and analyzed by political science; and

All (or almost all) actions taken by politicians can be linked back to theories and
theoretical paradigms inferred by the analysis of years (or even centuries) of politics.
While politics refers to the concrete legislative process and political science entails a
higher degree of abstraction, the two concepts are not mutually exclusive. On the
contrary, politics could not exist without the theoretical foundation of political science
and, in turn, political science would not exist without politics.

Difference between Politics and Political Science

The main difference between politics and political science is their area of
concern. Politics focuses on the affairs of the state and includes the act of governing
a country and the decision-making process. Conversely, political science is the
“science of politics” and uses comparative, qualitative, and quantitative methods to
achieve a comprehensive understanding of politics and governance. Some of the
main differences between the two concepts are listed below:
Relationship:
The two concepts are strictly linked. Politics is often the object of study of political
science and, at the same time, it draws on theories and paradigms outlined by
political scientists;

GOVERNANCE

What does Governance mean?

Governance can be defined as: “The system by which entities are directed and
controlled.  It is concerned with structure and processes for decision making,
accountability, control and behaviour at the top of an entity. Governance influences
how an organisation’s objectives are set and achieved, how risk is monitored and
addressed and how performance is optimised”.  Governance is a system and process,
not a single activity and therefore successful implementation of a good governance
strategy requires a systematic approach that incorporates strategic planning, risk
management and performance management.  Like culture, it is a core component of
the unique characteristics of a successful organisation.

Like government, the word governance derives, ultimately, from the Greek verb

kubernaein [kubernáo] (meaning to steer, the metaphorical sense first being attested
in Plato). Its occasional use in English to refer to the specific activity of ruling a
country can be traced to early modern England, when the phrase "governance of the
realm" appears in works by William Tyndale and in royal correspondence
between James V of Scotland and Henry VIII of England. The first usage in
connection with institutional structures (as distinct from individual rule) is in Charles
Plummer's The Governance of England (an 1885 translation from a 15th-century
Latin work by John Fortescue, also known as The Difference between an Absolute
and a Limited Monarchy). This usage of governance to refer to the arrangements of
governing became orthodox including in Sidney Low

What is Good Governance?

Good Governance is an approach to government that is committed to creating a

system founded in justice and peace that protects individual’s human rights and civil
liberties. Good Governance is measured by the eight factors of Participation, Rule of
Law, Transparency, Responsiveness, Consensus Oriented, Equity and Inclusiveness,
Effectiveness and Efficiency, and Accountability .

Why is good governance important?

The fundamental reasons why organisations should adopt good governance

practises include:

To preserve and strengthen stakeholder confidence – nothing distracts an

organisation more than having to deal with a disgruntled stakeholder group caused
by a lack of confidence in the governing body. And on the positive side, a supportive
stakeholder base can generate benefits for the organisation though social and
emotional support, intangible but very valuable attributes that all organisations
should strive to achieve and sustain;

To provide the foundation for a high-performing organisation – the achievement

of goals and sustainable success requires input and support from all levels of an
organisation. The Board, though good governance practices, provides the framework
for planning, implementation and monitoring of performance and without a
foundation to build high performance upon, the achievement of this goal becomes
problematic.  Achievement of the best performance and results possible, within
existing capacity and capability, should be an organisation’s on going goal. Good
governance should support management and staff to be “the best they can be”; and

To ensure the organisation is well placed to respond to a changing external

environment –business today operates in an environment of constant change.
Technology has created an information age that has transformed our world, and for
business to both survive and remain profitable to enable it to fulfil its mission and
achieve its vision, a system has to be in place to assist an organisation to identify
changes in both the external environment and emerging trends.  This process of
understanding our changing world does not happen by chance, it requires
leadership, commitment and resources from the governing body to establish and
maintain such a system within the organisation.  Change generally does not happen
“over-night”, it is there for all to see if they have in place a system for looking.
Governing bodies, as the ultimate leaders of an organisation, should take prime
responsibility for this activity. 

In summary, governance encompasses the processes by which organisations are

directed, controlled and held to account.  It includes the authority, accountability,
leadership, direction and control exercised in an organisation.  Greatness can be
achieved when good governance principles and practises are applied throughout the
whole organisation and that’s why governance is important. 

Eight Elements of Good Governance

Good governance has 8 major characteristics. It is participatory, consensus oriented,

accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive,
and follows the rule of law. Good governance is responsive to the present and future
needs of the organization, exercises prudence in policy-setting and decision-making,
and that the best interests of all stakeholders are taken into account.

1. Rule of Law
Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced by an
impartial regulatory body, for the full protection of stakeholders.

2. Transparency
Transparency means that information should be provided in easily
understandable forms and media; that it should be freely available and directly
accessible to those who will be affected by governance policies and practices, as well
as the outcomes resulting therefrom; and that any decisions taken and their
enforcement are in compliance with established rules and regulations.
3. Responsiveness
Good governance requires that organizations and their processes are designed
to serve the best interests of stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe.

4. Consensus Oriented
Good governance requires consultation to understand the different interests of
stakeholders in order to reach a broad consensus of what is in the best interest of
the entire stakeholder group and how this can be achieved in a sustainable and
prudent manner.

5. Equity and Inclusiveness

The organization that provides the opportunity for its stakeholders to maintain,
enhance, or generally improve their well-being provides the most compelling
message regarding its reason for existence and value to society.

6. Effectiveness and Efficiency

Good governance means that the processes implemented by the organization to
produce favorable results meet the needs of its stakeholders, while making the best
use of resources – human, technological, financial, natural and environmental – at its
disposal.

7. Accountability
Accountability is a key tenet of good governance. Who is accountable for what
should be documented in policy statements. In general, an organization is
accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions as well as the
applicable rules of law.

8. Participation
Participation by both men and women, either directly or through legitimate
representatives, is a key cornerstone of good governance. Participation needs to be
informed and organized, including freedom of expression and assiduous concern for
the best interests of the organization and society in general.

Towards Improved Governance:

Good governance is an ideal which is difficult to achieve in its totality.
Governance typically involves well-intentioned people who bring their ideas,
experiences, preferences and other human strengths and shortcomings to the policy-
making table. Good governance is achieved through an on-going discourse that
attempts to capture all of the considerations involved in assuring that stakeholder
interests are addressed and reflected in policy initiatives.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS
A political organization is any organization that involves itself in
the political process, including political parties, non-governmental
organizations, advocacy groups and special interest groups. Political organizations
are those engaged in political activities (e.g., lobbying, community
organizing, campaign advertising, etc.) aimed at achieving clearly-defined political
goals, which typically benefit the interests of their members.
While parties are one type of political organization that may engage in some or all of
those activities, they are distinct in that they typically focus on
supporting candidates for public office, winning elections and
controlling government.