Encyclopedia of Volcanos

First Edition, 2007
ISBN 978 81 89940 54 6
© All rights reserved.
Published by:
Global Media
1819, Bhagirath Palace,
Chandni Chowk, Delhi-110 006
Email: [email protected]
Table of Contents
1. Columnar Jointing
2. Ophsiolite
3. Types of Volcanoes
4. Volcanic Mineral Deposits
5. Current Volcanic Activity
6. Latest SI & USGS Reports
7. Things to Know
8. Volcanic and Geologic Terms

Columnar Jointing
Columnar jointing forms in lava flows, sills, dikes, ignimbrites

(ashflow tuffs), and shallow intrusions of all compositions. Most
columns are straight with parallel sides and diameters from a few
centimeters to 3 m. Some columns are curved and vary in width. The columns
Columns can reach heights of 30 m. may form sets.
Straight, regular
columns are
called
colonnade.
Irregular,
fractures
columns are
called
entablature.
From Spry
(1962).
Most columns tend to have 5 or 6 sides but have as few as 3 and as

many as 7 sides.
The columns form due to stress as the lava cools (Mallet, 1875; Iddings, 1886, 1909;
Spry, 1962). The lava contracts as it cools, forming cracks. Once the crack develops it
continues to grow. The growth is perpendicular to the surface of the flow. Entablature is
probably the result of cooling caused by fresh lava being covered by water. The flood
basalts probably damned rivers. When the rivers returned the water seeped down the
cracks in the cooling lava and caused rapid cooling from the surface downward (Long
and Wood, 1986). The division of colonnade and entablature is the result of slow cooling
from the base upward and rapid cooling from the top downward.
1931 postcard of Devils Tower, Wyoming, a

shallow intrusion that formed columnar jointing as
it cooled.
Possible mechanism for the formation of columnar
jointing at Devils Tower. Isotherms are layers with
the same temperature. Joints formed perpendicular
to the isotherms as the rock cooled. From Spry
(1962).
Old Models for the Formation of Columnar Jointing:
In 1804, Watts suggested that “molten magma solidified around a series of isolated
centres to form large plastic balls, which when pressed together gave the typical
hexagonal symmetry” (Spry, 1962). In 1916, Sosman proposed that the columns are
the results of a system of hexagonal convection cells. Sosmans model was based on
experiments of wax or oil in a flat dish. Critics noted that lava flows do not gain heat
from their bases but actually lose heat from the top surface. Furthermore, the shape of
the convection cells did not resemble hexagonal columns.
Classic examples:
• Giants Causeway, County Antrim, Northern Ireland

• Fingals Cave, Staffa Island, Scotland
• Columbia River flood basalts of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, USA
• Devils Postpile, California, USA
• Devils Tower, Wyoming, USA
•
Columnar jointing in Sheepeater Cliff, Yellowstone National Park.
Lesser known examples:
• Rosette in the volcanic neck at Rock and Spindle, St. Andrews, Scotland
• Massif Central, France (described by Baron Leopold van Buch)
• Moraine Mountain trail, Lake Louise and Banff, Alberta, Canada
• Makuopuhi Crater, Kilauea, Hawaii, USA
• Craters of the Moon, Idaho, USA
• Dunsmuir, California, USA
• Bishop Tuff ignimbrite, California, USA
• Orange Mountains, New Jersey, USA
• San Anton, Morelos, Mexico
• Cerro Galan ignimbrite, near Antofagasta de la Sierra, Argentina
• Intrusion at Rosslyn Bay, Bluff Point National Park, Queensland, Australia
• Millstream Falls National Park, Queensland, Australia
• The Organ Pipes, in the valley of Jacksons Creek, near Bulla, New South Wales,
Australia
• Barfold Gorge, along the Campaspe River, New South Wales, Australia
• Don Heads, Doctors Rocks, and Burnie, Tasmania, Australia
• Shag Head Rock, Avon-Heathcote estuary, Lyttelton volcano, South Island, New
Zealand
• Quail Island, South Island, New Zealand
• Mount Bradley, Lyttelton volcano, South Island, New Zealand
• Mount Holmes, near Otago Harbour, South Island, New Zealand
•
Large columnar joints that developed in a cooling lava pond in Mokaopuhi Crater,
East Rift Zone, Kilauea. The columns were exposed by a younger episode of
collapse of the pit crater. An even younger eruption has buried these spectacular
columns.
Nan Madol, the Federated States of Micronesia
Cool Facts about Columns:
There are more than 40,000 columns at Giants Causeway. German composer Felix
Mendelssohn based his famous 1830 “Hebrides Overture” on the sound of the waves
filling and draining Fingals Cave. The similarity of the shape of the columns to those
of quartz crystals was once used to support the theory (called Neptunism) that
volcanic rocks precipitated from water.
Postcard of the Grand Causeway & Horizontal Pillars at Giants Causeway.
Postcard of Fingals Cave.
Irish Folklore for the Origin of Giants Causeway and Fingals Cave: Finn Mac
Cool, an Irish Giant, want to fight his Scottish counterpart, Finn Gall. Mac Cool
drove the columns in place, one at a time, until the causeway reached Scotland
(Fingals Cave). Mac Cool was so tired from the hard work that he returned home
to rest. Finn Gall followed the causeway to Ireland. He found Mac Cool sleeping
and Mac Cools wife, a very shrewd women, told Finn Gall that this was her baby
sleeping. Finn Gall grew alarmed, thinking this giant babys father must be of
incredible size and that he would surely lose any fight. Finn gall fled back to
Scotland. As he did, he destroyed the causeway. Only the two ends of the
causeway survive to this day
Ophiolites
Ophiolites are pieces of oceanic plate that have been thrusted (obducted) onto the edge of
continental plates. They provide models for processes at mid-ocean ridges.
Ophiolites are an assemblage of mafic and ultramafic lavas and hypabyssal rocks found
in association with sedimentary rocks like greywackes and cherts. They are found in
areas that have complex structure. Cross-sections simplified from R.C. Coleman, 1981,
Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 86, p. 2497-2508.
Ophiolites have been found in Cyprus, New Guinea, Newfoundland, California, and
Oman. The Samail ophiolite in southeastern Oman has probably been studied in the
greatest detail. The rocks probably formed in the Cretaceous not far from the what is now
the Persian Gulf. The rocks were later thrust (pushed uphill at a low angle) westward onto
the Arabian shield.
Ophiolites are characterized by a classic sequence of rocks. This sequence is well
exposed at the Samail ophiolite. The base of the sequence is sedimentary rocks of the
Arabian shield, not part of the ophiolite, on which the oceanic plate was pushed. From
base to top the ophiolite is made of: peridotite, layered gabbro, massive gabbro, dikes,
and volcanic rocks. At Samail this entire sequence is 15 km thick. The basal peridotite is
made of a rock called harzburgite (made mostly of the minerals olivine and enstatite).
Within the peridotite are many dikes of gabbro and dunite. The peridotite is deformed.
The peridotite is overlain by dunite (an intrusive igneous rock made mostly of the mineral
olivine) that grades upward to gabbro (an intrusive igneous rock made mostly of
plagioclase and clinopyroxene - augite). The sequence is capped by dikes and volcanic
rocks (pillow basalts that erupted on the ocean floor). Sequence of rocks simplified from
R.C. Coleman (1981).
From a tectonic perspective, the peridotite is depleted mantle that was under the magma
chamber at the mid-ocean ridge crest. The gabbro layer is related, in some way, to the
crystallization of the magma chamber (probably with repeated injections of magma).
Volocano Bomb Pictures

By far the greatest numbers of bombs produced during a volcanic eruption are
simply irregular in shape. They are generally very vesicular and lumpy and are
called scoria or cinders. The photographs that follow are of volcanic bombs
that have a somewhat streamlined shape and were generally ejected during the
final stages of the volcanic eruption.
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__________
Bread Crust Bombs

Bread crust bombs are created when the bomb cools, producing a hard crust
that insulates the inside keeping it hot and full of dissolved gases. The gases
continue to expand and break the crust that has already formed. Occasionally
the molten interior squeezes out (see "pie filling" bomb) or if the gas expansion
is violent, the bomb explodes (see explosion bomb).
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__________
CORE BOMBS
A core of basaltic scoria.

(Bottom picture pair) A core of basalt and a coarse grained gabbro.
As the name implies, core bombs have formed around a distinct core of solid
material. The core can be any kind of a rock that is stable enough to withstand
the conditions associated with the volcanic eruption. Commonly the core of
core bombs is an older fragment of the volcano, e.g., a piece of basalt. In
other cases, it is a piece of country rock ripped up by the ascending molten
mass. Occasionally the core can be carried up from great depths and represent
the lower crust or even the upper mantle.
The top photo shows a core of basaltic scoria, perhaps a remnant of a former
eruption that was caught up in a more recent emission of molten ejecta. The
bomb also shows a delicate flange of basalt on the left that formed as a result
of its flight through the air.
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__________
COW PIE BOMBS OR COW PAT BOMBS

A cow pie or cow pat bomb is so
named because of its resemblance to the cow droppings one would encounter
while walking across a cow pasture. Actually the bomb was very plastic when
it formed and was capable of flowing after it hit the ground. The implication is
that the bomb was not cooled by a long flight time or was very hot when
ejected. In addition to its plastic flow, cow pie bombs were also sticky enough
to hold (weld) pieces of cinder to its cooling crust. This particular cow pie
bomb is also a slag bomb
Another fine example of a cow pie bomb is shown here. The photo on the left
is the "top" side of the bomb and the photo on the right is the "bottom". In
either case, it is obvious that the bomb was very fluid after it fell on the side
of the volcano and flowed downslope becoming encrusted with cinders, both
from below and those falling from above. Cow pie bombs are relatively rare.
Explosion Bomb
The above picture shows a bomb that has had a minor explosion of rapidly
expanding gas. After the bomb was ejected from the volcanic vent, it created
a hard crust or shell that insulated the still plastic interior. Within this
material, volcanic gas was still expanding. This gas produced a bubble that
burst leaving this crater in the side of the bomb.
These photos are of different perspectives of the same explosion bomb. Here
the expanding gases were more violent, blasting the bomb apart.
Another explosion bomb about 4 inches

across.
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__________
FUSIFORM BOMBS
These are the "classic" types of bombs referred to in textbooks. They are
typically very streamlined, often with elongate "ears" stretching beyond the
central bulge. Often, the bomb and the ears are part of a much larger ribbon
bomb in which the delicate ribbons separate as the fluid mass flies through the
air or break off on impact.
This fusiform bomb has become welded
to volcanic cinder and scoria, an indication that the volcanic ejecta remains
hot and plastic after it comes to rest along the flanks of the volcano.
The heat associated with volcanic
ejecta is also demonstrated in this image of a fusiform bomb that has welded
to cinder and has also become deformed by plastic flow.
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__________
SQUEEZE OUT BOMB After the bomb formed a hard crust the inside continued
to expand. This expansion was not explosive but was able to crack the newly
formed crust and allow some of its plastic interior to extrude outward. (See
also the Tear Drop Bomb below.)
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__________
RIBBON BOMB
Ribbon Bombs, as the name
implies are long thin bands of lava ejected from the volcanic vent. These very
plastic bombs can be ejected directly or can form as long streamers pulled off
of larger bombs as they fly through the air. Regardless of their mode of
formation, they are usually very fragile and break upon impact.
Another ribbon bomb about 6
inches in length showing three distinct inclusions reminiscent of peas in a pod.
_____________________________________________________________
__________
ROTATION BOMB
This fusiform bomb probably

had elongate ears that may have stretched into streamers as it was ejected
from the volcano. It also achieved some rotation either from the force of the
ejection or by the aerodynamics of its flight. What ever the reason, the bomb
displays at definite twist.
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__________
SLAG BOMBS
Slag bombs have the appearance of smelter slag in that they are very vesicular
(porous) and have a very fine grained, almost glassy, exterior. They are,
however, bombs in that they were ejected from the volcanic vent and have
taken on a streamlined shape.
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__________
TEARDROP BOMB
Teardrop bombs have the classic

shape of a teardrop or raindrop. They are asymmetrical fusiform bombs that
are elongate in one direction away from the central bulge. This teardrop bomb
also displays the Squeeze Out effect in that the solid crust was breached and
the still plastic interior expanded outwards.
Types of Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Shield volcanoes are the largest volcanoes on Earth that actually look like volcanoes (i.e.
not counting flood basalt flows). The Hawaiian shield volcanoes are the most famous
examples. Shield volcanoes are almost exclusively basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid
when erupted. For this reason these volcanoes are not steep (you can't pile up a fluid that
easily runs downhill). Eruptions at shield volcanoes are only explosive if water somehow
gets into the vent, otherwise they are characterized by low-explosivity fountaining that
forms cinder cones and spatter cones at the vent, however, 90% of the volcano is lava
rather than pyroclastic material. Shield volcanoes are the result of high magma supply
rates; the lava is hot and little-changed since the time it was generated. Shield volcanoes
are the common product of hotspot volcanism but they can also be found along
subduction-related volcanic arcs or all by themselves. Examples of shield volcanoes are
Kilauea and Mauna Loa (and their Hawaiian friends), Fernandina (and its Galápagos
friends), Karthala, Erta Ale, Tolbachik, Masaya, and many others.
Here are 4 of the volcanoes that comprise the big island of Hawai'i. They are Mauna Kea
(MK), Mauna Loa (ML), Hualalai (H), and Kohala (K). The photo was taken from near
the summit of East Maui volcano (EM). These are the largest volcanoes on Earth.
This is a vertical air photo of the summit caldera of Mauna Loa volcano (North is to the
left). Notice that the caldera is composed of numerous smaller "cookie-cutter" collapses
which have coalesced to form the main caldera. Notice also that many of the lava flows
(dark and light are 'a'a and pahoehoe, respectively) have been truncated by the caldera
margin. This is an indication that they erupted from the volcano summit when the caldera
was full. Collapse since then has produced the present caldera. In this manner of
collapsing and filling, calderas come and go throughout the active lifetime of a basaltic
volcano.
Strato Volcanoes
Strato Volcanoes comprise the largest percentage (~60%) of the Earth's individual
volcanoes and most are characterized by eruptions of andesite and dacite - lavas that are
cooler and more viscous than basalt. These more viscous lavas allow gas pressures to
build up to high levels (they are effective "plugs" in the plumbing), therefore these
volcanoes often suffer explosive eruptions. Strato volcanoes are usually about half-half
lava and pyroclastic material, and the layering of these products gives them their other
common name of composite volcanoes. The lava at strato volcanoes occasionally forms
'a'a, but more commonly it barely flows at all, preferring to pile up in the vent to form
volcanic domes. Some strato volcanoes are just a collection of domes piled up on each
other. Strato volcanoes are commonly found along subduction-related volcanic arcs, and
the magma supply rates to strato volcanoes are lower. This is the cause of the cooler and
differentiated magma compositions and the reason for the usually long repose periods
between eruptions. Examples of strato volcanoes include Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Rainier,
Pinatubo, Mt. Fuji, Merapi, Galeras, Cotopaxi, and super plenty others.
Although they are not as explosive as large silicic caldera complexes, strato volcanoes
have caused by far the most casualties of any type of volcano. This is for many reasons.
First is that there are so many more strato volcanoes than any of the other types. This
means that there will also be lots of people who end up living on the flanks of these
volcanoes. Additionally, strato volcanoes are steep piles of ash, lava, and domes that are
often rained heavily on, shaken by earthquakes, or oversteepened by intruding blobs of
magma (or all of these). This makes the likelihood of landslides, avalanches, and
mudflows all very high. Occasionally as well, entire flanks of strato volcanoes collapse,
in a process that has been termed "sector collapse". Of course the most famous example
of this is Mt. St. Helens, the north flank of which failed during the first stages of the big
1980 eruption. Mt. St. Helens was certainly not the only volcano to have suffered an
eruption such as this, however. Two other recent examples are Bezymianny (Kamchatka)
in 1956, and Unzen (Japan) in 1792. The 1792 Unzen sector collapse dumped a flank of
the volcano into a shallow inland sea, generating devastating tsunami that killed almost
15,000 people along the nearby coastlines.
Another very common and deadly hazard at most strato volcanoes is called a Lahar.
Lahar is an Indonesian word for a mudflow, and most geologists use the term to mean a
mudflow on an active volcano. Sometimes the word is reserved only for mudflows that
are directly associated with an ongoing eruption (which are therefore usually hot), but
that starts to make things confusing. It is probably simplest to just call any mudflow on a
volcano a lahar. Lahars are so dangerous because they move quickly, and often times a
small eruption or relatively small rainstorm can generate a huge lahar. The most recent
huge volcanic disaster occurred at a Colombian volcano called Nevado del Ruiz in 1985.
This disaster has been well-documented by numerous post-eruption studies. Nevado del
Ruiz is a very tall volcano, and even though it lies only slightly above the equator it has a
permanent snow and ice field on its summit. On November 13, 1985 a relatively small
eruption occurred at the summit. Even though only a little bit of ash fell and only small
pyroclastic flows were produced, they were able to melt and destabilize a good deal of
the summit ice cap. The ice cap had already been weakened and fractured by a few
months of pre-cursor seismic activity. The melted snow and ice, along with chunks of ice,
surged down gullies that started high on the slopes, picking up water, water-saturated
sediments, rocks, and vegetation along the way. The eruption occurred just after 9:00 pm,
and about 2 and a half hours later lahars managed to travel the approximately 50 km
down river valleys to the town of Armero. The lahar entered Armero at 11:30 pm as a
wall of muddy water nearly 40 meters high, and roared into the city, producing an
eventual thickness of 2-5 meters of mud. Somewhere around 23,000 people were almost
instantly killed. The path of destruction almost exactly matches similar disasters that
occurred in 1595 and 1845. It also almost exactly covered the highest lahar-designated
area on the volcanic hazard map that had been prepared prior to the 1985 eruption.
Unfortunately that map had not yet been distributed by the time of the 1985 eruption.
Another place that is starting to get really tired of lahars is Pinatubo, in the Philippines.
The 1991 Pinatubo eruption was the second largest this century (after Katmai in 1912),
and deposited a huge volume of relatively loose pyroclastic material on already-steep and
gullied slopes. Additionally, the rainfall in the Philippines is very high. The combination
of all this unconsolidated material and heavy rainfall has generated probably hundreds of
lahars, some of which have been enormous. Timely evacuation meant that only a couple
hundred people were killed directly by the 1991 eruption. Many times that many have
been killed or injured by lahars since the 1991 eruption. These lahars will continue to be
a problem for decades after the big eruption.
Rhyolite Caldera Complexes

Rhyolite caldera complexes are the most explosive of Earth's volcanoes but often don't
even look like volcanoes. They are usually so explosive when they erupt that they end up
collapsing in on themselves rather than building any tall structure (George Walker has
termed such structures "inverse volcanoes"). The collapsed depressions are large
calderas, and they indicate that the magma chambers associated with the eruptions are
huge. In fact, layers of ash (either ash falls or ash flows) often extend over thousands of
square kilometers in all directions from these calderas. Fortunately we haven't had to live
through one of these since 83 AD when Taupo erupted. Many rhyolite caldera
complexes, however, are the scenes of small-scale eruptions during the long reposes
between big explosive events. The vents for these smaller eruptions sometimes follow the
ring faults of the main caldera but most often they don't. The origin of these rhyolite
complexes is still not well-understood. Many folks think that Yellowstone, for example,
is associated with a hotspot. However, a hotspot origin for most other rhyolite calderas
doesn't work; they occur in subduction-related arcs. Examples of rhyolite caldera
complexes include Yellowstone, La Primavera, Rabaul, Taupo, Toba, and others.
This is an outcrop in the Los Chocoyos ignimbrite, the product of one of the most
powerful eruptions known...
Volcanic Mineral Deposits
Can your knowledge of volcanic rocks make you rich? Yes, if you combine it with
knowledge of mineral deposits and global economic factors. Volcanoes directly or
indirectly produce or host deposits of aluminum, diamonds, gold, nickel, lead, zinc, and
copper. We use most of these materials everyday and, over the course of a lifetime,
consume some of them (via the products we buy and use) in great amounts. This page
provides a basic overview of the mineral deposits hosted in volcanic rocks. Photo shows
alluvial diamonds that were eroded from the Argyle pipe.
Bauxite
Aluminum ore, called bauxite, is most commonly formed in deeply weathered rocks. In
some locations, deeply weather volcanic rocks, usually basalt, form bauxite deposits.
This sample of bauxite ore is from Western Australia.
Uses for Aluminum
Aluminum has a wide range of common uses. It is lightweight, strong (especially with
alloys), and conducts heat well. Many kitchen items (pots and pans, foil, dishes) are made
of aluminum. Most materials used for transportation use large amounts of aluminum:
cars, trucks, boats, aircraft, and aircraft engines. Road signs and high-voltage power lines
are also made mostly of aluminum.
World Supply of Aluminum
About 110 million tonnes of aluminum was produced in 1994. Australia produces most of
the world's aluminum. Diagram from ITAM Bauxite by the Minerals Council of Australia
Diamonds
Diamonds are crystalline carbon and the hardest known substance. This photo shows
diamonds from the Argyle Mine in northern Western Australia.
Photo of a courtesy of Argyle Diamond Mine.
Diamonds are brought to the surface from the mantle in a rare type of magma called
kimberlite and erupted at a rare type of volcanic vent called a diatreme or pipe.
Kimberlite is a gas-rich, potassic ultramafic igneous rock that contains the minerals
olivine, phlogopite, diopside, serpentine, calcite, and minor amounts of apatite,
magnetite, chromite, garnet, diamond, and other upper mantle minerals. Upper mantle
xenoliths are found in some kimberlite and provide clues to the magma's origin. The
source depth for kimberlite magmas is estimated at 200 km, more than twice as deep as
the source region for most magmas. At a depth of 200 km the pressure is 60,000 times
greater than the surface and the temperature is about 1500 C. Kimberlite magmas are rich
in carbon dioxide and water which brings the magma quickly and violently to the surface.
Most kimberlites occur as multiple intrusive events. Kimberlite was named for the rock
associated with diamonds in Kimberley, South Africa.
Kimberlite magmas form "pipes" as they erupt. A tuff cone is at the surface and formed
by base-surge deposits. In the subsurface, a funnel-shaped body narrows to a depth of
hundreds of meters. The pipe (also called a diatreme) is filled with kimberlite, with or
without diamonds (only 1 in 5 of the pipes at Kimberley contain diamonds). Simplified
from Hawthorne (1975).
Just how many diamonds are needed to make aa pipe economical? Some South African
mines operate at 25 carats of diamond per 100 cubic meters of rock or about 2 grams of
diamonds per 100 tons of rock. Because diamond has a specific gravity of 3.5 grams per
cubic centimeter, 1 cubic centimeter of diamond weighs 16 carats. Picture a giant 100-ton
ore truck full of kimberlite - that truck contains only half of a cubic centimeter of
diamonds! Only about 35% of those diamonds are gem quality.
Macles diamonds from the Argyle pipe, Western Australia.
Uses for Diamonds
Most diamonds are used in drill bits and diamond tools. A small number are used for
glass cutters and surgical instruments. Only the finest are used as gems.
World Supply of Diamonds
Australia is currently the world's largest producer of diamonds. Most of these diamonds
are low quality and used for industrial purposes. Most of the diamonds are from the
Argyle diamond pipe in northern Western Australia. The pipe at Argyle is made of
lamproite, not kimberlite. The mine produced 27.8 million carats (1 ct = 200 mg; 5 carats
= 1 gram) of low grade diamonds in 1993-1994. Because of the high rate of production at
Argyle, mining operations will end within the next few years.
The mines at Kimberley, South Africa have produced a total of more than 200 million
carats since the 1870s. About half of South Africa?s diamonds are gem quality.
Gold
Gold forms in close association with volcanoes or is hosted in volcanic rocks. Three
environments/styles are most common: gold in greenstone belts, gold in porphyry
deposits, and gold in epithermal deposits. Photo shows gold jewelry recovered from the
ash deposits of the 79 A.D. eruption of Vesuvius.
Gold in Greenstone Belts
Gold is found in Archean (rocks older than 2.5 billion years) greenstone belts in
Australia, southern Africa, and Canada. Greenstone belts are volcanic-sedimentary
sequences, which include ultramafic rocks, dolerite, basalt, chert, sandstone, shale, tuff,
banded iron-formation and other rock types. These rocks are very complex, having
undergone metamorphism, folding, faulting, and shearing. Gold is most commonly found
along the edges of greenstone belts and associated with structural features. Intensely
altered and fractured basalt is a common host rock. The gold is though to be mobilized by
hydrothermal solutions during regional metamorphism. The solutions probably contain
only a few parts-per billion gold but great volumes of solution can precipitate their gold
in a small zone with favorable chemical conditions. The deposit itself is usually a quartz
vein that carries the gold or adjacent altered rock.
A classic example of gold hosted in greenstone is the Golden Mile in Kalgoorlie, Western
Australia. The top diagram is a simple map that shows folds, faults, rock type, and
mineralization. The bottom diagram is a cross-section of the deposit. Dolerite refers to
dike rocks with plagioclase crystals in pyroxene crystals. By 1993, 40 million ounces of
gold has been mined from the Golden Mile. Diagram from ITAM Gold by the Minerals
Council of Australia.
Another example of gold hosted in greenstone is the St. Ives deposit near Kambalda,
Western Australia. Three mines have produced more than 2.1 million ounces of gold
from 1980-1993. Another 5.4 million ounces of gold remains in the deposits. The gold is
found in altered rocks in all parts of the stratigraphic sequence. Diagram from ITAM
Gold by the Minerals Council of Australia.
Gold in Porphyry Deposits

Gold and copper are found in ore bodies associated with porphry. Porphry is a general
term applied to igneous rocks of any composition that contain conspicuous phenocrysts
(crystals) in a fine-grained groundmass. The term is from a Greek word for purple dye
and was first applied to a purple-red rock with phenocrysts of alkali feldspar that was
quarried in Egypt. Diagram from ITAM Copper by the Minerals Council of Australia.
This type of deposit forms beneath stratovolcanoes and is associated with subduction
zones. Erosion strips off overlying rocks to expose the mineralization. Gold and copper
are found in sulfide minerals disseminated throughout the large volumes of intrusive rock
(strictly speaking, this ore is associated with volcanic systems, usually not the volcanoes
themselves). This requires large amounts of rock to be mined, often in open pits. The
deposits are commonly 3-8 km across and copper may be less than 1% of the rock.
Porphyry deposits are zoned in alteration (potassic ® sericitic ® argillic ® propylitic) and
mineralization.
Gold in Epithermal Deposits

Epithermal refers to mineral deposits that form in association with hot waters. The
deposits form within 1 km of the surface and water temperatures are about 50-200
degrees C. Shallow bodies of magma supply heat. The rising hot water carries dissolved
gold and other elements. The water boils about 300 m below the surface and hydrogen
sulfide gas escapes. This causes the gold to precipitate. The boiling zone is the target for
mineral exploration. Veins commonly host the economic minerals. Diagram from ITAM
Gold by the Minerals Council of Australia.
Lihir Island in Papua
New Guinea is an epithermal deposit discovered in 1982. The island is made of three
volcanoes including Luise caldera, where the deposit formed. The rocks are trachybasalt
lava flows, breccia, and tuffs.The mineralized rocks are highly altered. Most of the ore is
in breccia thought to have been a boiling zone for rising fluids. The deposit formed
between 350,000 and 100,000 years ago. It is estimated that the deposit contains 21.3
million ounces proven and probably another 42 million ounces as a geological resource.
Most of the gold is fine particles in pyrite (FeS) grains. Hot springs and fumaroles are
still active on the caldera floor.
Uses for Gold
Gold is rare, durable, chemically inert, and beautiful. These qualities make it useful for
monetary exchange and investment, jewelry, and art.Gold?s high electrical conductivity,
malleability, and ductility make it useful as an industrial metal. Gold is alloyed with
silver, copper, nickel, palladium, zinc, and titanium to increase its tensile strength. Note:
for gold, 1 carat = 1/24 part. Pure gold is 24 carat.
World Supply of Gold

Pie diagram of major gold producers. In 1994, 2,296 tonnes of gold was produced. South
Africa is the largest producer, followed by the USA, Australia, and the CIS (former
Soviet Union).
Nickel
Deposits of nickel sulfides are mined from greenstone belts in many ancient volcanic
terranes. The ore is associated with ultramafic lava flows called komatiites. Komatiites
have more than 18 weight % magnesium oxide (MgO) and large amounts of the mineral
olivine. Komatiites are derived from melting in the mantle.
Komatiites have a unique texture called spinifex. The texture is an intergrowth of long,
skeletal crystals of olivine and/or pyroxene. The texture is named for its resemblance to
spinifex grass in Australia.
Cross-section of a typical komatiite lava flow. Simplified from Hill and others, 1989.
Cross-section of igneous lithologies and associated massive nickel sulfides in a komatiite
lava flow. Simplified from Hill and others, 1989.
Core in komatiite lava with adcumulate texture.

The Sudbury District in Canada is the world's largest producer of nickel.
Another major nickel producer is in Western Australia and includes the Kambalda and
MurrinMurrin deposits. MurrinMurrin consists of five deposits with a total of 11.9
million tonnes at 1.01% Ni and 0.07% Co.
In 1993, a large deposit of nickel-, copper-, and cobalt-sulfides (~150 million tons) was
discovered at Voisey Bay on the northeast coast of Labrador, Canada. This deposit
formed in magma chambers that fed large basaltic eruptions.
Uses for Nickel:
Nickel is commonly alloyed with other metals to provide resistance to corrosion and heat,
and to add strength and hardness. These alloys are used for industrial and consumer
goods. Most of the nickel produced is used to make stainless steel. Stainless steel
contains about 8% nickel. Monel metal, a highly corrosion-resistant alloy, contains 67%
nickel and is usedin ship building, food-processing equipment and in hospitals. Nickel is
used by the military for armor plate. Nickel is used in alkaline batteries, dyes, insecticides
and as a catalyst. Nickel is commonly used in coins.
World Supply of Nickel
In 1994, about 875,000 tonnes of nickel was produced worldwide. Major producers are
the Commonwealth of Independent States (former Soviet Union), Canada, New
Caledonia, Indonesia, and Australia. Diagram from ITAM Nickel by the Minerals
Council of Australia.
Base Metals
Zinc-Copper volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits have been observed as they
form at mid-ocean ridges. Chimneys formed at the ridges have as much as 29 weight %
zinc and 6 weight % copper in sulfide minerals (pyrrhotite, pyrite, sphalerite, and
chalcopyrite). The minerals are dissolved in fluids at temperatures as high as 380 C
flowing at 1-5 m/sec.
The minerals precipitate as the hot solution comes in contact with cold sea water. Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institution and members of the Adventure dive (Principle
Investigators: D. Fornari, R. Haymon, K. Von Damm, M. Perfit, M. Lilley, and R. Lutz).
Lead, zinc, and cooper are found in VMS deposits. The deposits form in deep ocean
water by the precipitation of sulfide minerals released by submarine volcanoes.
Volcanic fluids and hot seawater move through the volcanic rocks and leach metals. The
deposits are associated with lava flows, breccia, water-deposited tuffs, cherts, sulfates,
and limestones. VMS deposits are usually associated with quartz, anhydrite, gypsum, and
barite. This photo shows pyrite in silicified tuff from a VMS deposit in eastern Java,
Indonesia. The sample contains 0.55 ppm gold.
Photo by Steve Mattox.
There are three types of VMS deposits:
Zinc-Copper Lead-Zinc-Copper Copper-Pyrite

basalt or
Host rock basalt to rhyolite rhyolite
ultramafic lava
Proterozoic-
Age Archean Mesozoic
Paleozoic
Ore minerals sp, ch, py ga, sp, py, some ch ch, py
Associated
gold, silver silver, some gold gold
metals
Famous greenstones of Sudbury and
Kuroko, Japan Cyprus
Occurrences Canada, Australia Bathurst Canada
spreading
Setting spreading centers back-arc basins
centers
and ga =
Minerals: sp = sphalerite ch = chalcopyrite py = pyrite
galena.
Kuroko-style VMS deposits are found in dacite-rhyolite domes that erupted in the deep
water of back-arc (behind the main volcanic arc) basins. Kuroko deposits are zoned from
copper-rich near the center, to zinc-rich, to lead-rich at the outer edges of the deposit. The
fluids that form Kuroko deposits have twice the salinity of average ocean water and
temperatures of 250-300 C. This cross-section of a typical Kuroko deposit is from Sato
(1974) and Franklin and others (1981). Modern-day VMS deposits of the Kuroko-style
have been observed as they form in the back-arc basin of the Okinawa Trough (Halbach
and others, 1989).
The deposit at Bathurst in Canada is an example of lead-zinc-copper VMS. Hydrothermal
solutions associated with Keweenawan flood basalts have produced copper deposits in
the Lake Superior area. Between 1845 and 1968, over 13 billion pounds of copper and 16
million ounces of silver were produced from the Keweenawan district.
The porphry (not VMS) mine at El Abra in Chile will produce 500 million pounds of
copper annually.
Uses for Copper, Lead, and Zinc
Copper was used as long ago as 8000 BC for tools, weapons, and ornaments. The
discovery of bronze (copper and tin alloy) about 3500 BC marked the onset of the Bronze
Age. Romans used lead for the plumbing and sewage systems. In Modern times, the
electrical conductivity, ductility, and resistance to corrosion of copper, lead, and zinc,
make them very useful in alloys. Copper is used for electrical applications (50%), general
and industrial engineering applications (20%), building and construction (15%),
transportation (11%) and other applications. Lead is used in storage batteries, paints,
dyes, explosives, insecticides, and rubber products.
Zinc is used in galvanized steel, protective coatings for steel, and die casting. Zinc
compounds are used for luminous dials, cosmetics, plastics, rubber products, soaps, and
inks.
World Supply of Copper
In 1991, 9,167,000 tons of copper was produced. Chile (19.8%), USA (17.8 %), and the
CIS (9.8%) are the main producers. USA, Japan, and the CIS are the main consumers.
Current Volcanic Activity
Headwall of Fourpeaked Glacier, surface rilling, vapor plume

Third highest Fumarole and ice cavern
Fourpeaked Volcano, Alaska Peninsula, USA
A large steam explosion near the summit of Fourpeaked volcano occurred on Sunday, September 17 beginning at approximately
12:00 noon AKDT (2000 UTC, September 18). Fourpeaked volcano is not known to have erupted historically and the age of the
ast eruption is not known. Geological investigations have been limited and ice covers much of the area. Because of this, the rang
of sizes and styles of past eruptions are not well-constrained. However, the composition of the volcano indicates that eruptions o
ourpeaked can be explosive, possibly producing plumes that reach in excess of 10 km (33,000 ft) above sea level and local ashfa
Latest SI/USGS reports.
DATE OF LOCATION
YEAR OF MOST
MOST
RECENT
RECENT and WEB
VOLCANO: SIGNIFICANT
ACTIVITY CAM
ERUPTION
REPORT: (if available)
Cleveland, Chuginadak Island,
Alaska
AVO raised the Alert Level for

Cleveland from Advisory to Watch
on 28 October based on pilot reports
of an ash plume. Satellite imagery
confirmed the presence of a plume
drifting ENE at an altitude estimated
at 6.1 km (20,000 ft) a.s.l. A pilot 52.82N,
reported that the altitude of the plume October 31, 169.95W
2005
was in excess of 9.1 km (30,000 ft) 2006
a.s.l. On 30 October, the Alert Level
was lowered back to Advisory
because of no further evidence of
activity.
Sources: Alaska Volcano Observatory

- "Reports provided courtesy of the
Smithsonian's Global Volcanism
Program and the US Geological
Survey's Volcano Hazards Program."
Mayon, Philippines
PHIVOLCS announced the lowering

of the Alert status for Mayon from
Alert Level 2 to Alert Level 1 on 25
October. The 7-km Extended Danger
13.3N,
Zone (EDZ) on the SE flank
October 31, 123.7E
remained in effect. 2005
2006
Sources: Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology -
"Report provided courtesy of the
Bulusan, Philippines 1995 October 31, 12.770N,
2006 124.05E
PHIVOLCS reported that during 25-
26 October, a lahar from Bulusan
deposited sediments 15 cm (6 in)
thick along a tributary leading to the
Gulang-gulang River. According to
news articles, the lahar mobilized
boulders as large as trucks and caused
at least 96 people to evacuate. During
30-31 October, ash explosions
generated a light gray ash-and-steam
plume that rose to 2.3 km (7,400 ft)
a.s.l. and drifted NNE. Later field
inspection revealed ashfall (trace to 1
mm) in the N sectors of the volcano,
including areas in the municipalities
of Casiguran and Gubat.
Source: Philippine Institute of

Colima, Mexico
Based on reports from the Mexico

City MWO and satellite imagery, the
Washington VAAC reported that an
19.51N,
eruption plume from Colima on 29
103.62W
October reached an altitude of 6.1 km
October 31,
(20,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted S. 2005, ongoing
2006
Sources: Washington Volcanic Ash
WEB CAM
Advisory Center - "Reports provided
courtesy of the Smithsonian's Global
Volcanism Program and the US
Geological Survey's Volcano Hazards
Program."
Karymsky, Kamchatka, Russia
54.0N,
Seismic activity increased at October 31, 159.5E
2005, ongoing
Karymsky during 21-27 October, 2006
with 350-550 shallow earthquakes
occurring daily. Explosions produced
ash plumes that may have reached
altitudes of 2.5-5.0 km (8,200-16,400
ft) a.s.l. and drifted E, NE, and SE.
Staff from the Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology (IVS)
observed a series of ash bursts that
produced plumes to 2.0 km (6,600 ft)
a.s.l. on 25 October. A thermal
anomaly in the crater was detected on
satellite imagery during 19-24
October.
Sources: Kamchatkan Volcanic

Eruption Response Team (KVERT) -
Kilauea, Hawai'i, USA
The summit of Kilauea continued to

slowly inflate S of Halema'uma'u
caldera during 25-31 October.
Incandescence was intermittently but
strongly visible from the East Pond
and January vents, and occasionally
dimly visible from South Wall
complex and Drainhole vent in Pu'u
'O'o's crater. Lava from the Campout
and PKK systems continued to flow 19.452N,
off of a lava delta into the ocean at 155.292W
the East Lae'apuki and East Ka'ili'ili October 31,
2005, ongoing
entries. On 25 October, two separate 2006
break-out lava flows were visible on
Pulama pali. The upper flow at about WEB CAM
320 m (1,050 ft) elevation consisted
of 'a'a and pahoehoe and the lower
flow at 114 m (375 ft) was solely
pahoehoe.
Sources: US Geological Survey

Hawaiian Volcano Observatory -
Langila, New Britain, Papua New
Guinea
During 23-31 October, eruptive

activity at Langila's Crater 2 consisted
of continuous emissions of gray-to-
brown ash plumes accompanied by
sub-forceful gray ash plumes. Pilots
reported plumes to an altitude of 2.4
km (8,000 ft) a.s.l. that drifted NE.
Explosions of incandescent lava
5.52S,
fragments were visible during 23-30
October 31, 148.42E
October. Based on satellite imagery, 2004
2006
the Darwin VAAC reported that on
31 October a small ash plume rose to
an altitude of 4.6 km (15,000 ft) a.s.l.
and drifted NNE.
Sources: Herman Patia, Rabaul

Volcano Observatory, Darwin
Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre -
Rabaul, Papua New Guinea
Based on satellite imagery, the

Darwin VAAC reported that a small
ash-and-steam plume from Rabaul
reached an altitude of 3.0 km (10,000
ft) a.s.l. and drifted NW on 26, 27,
and 28 October. The RVO reported
that mild eruptions during 29-30
4.27S,
October produced thick, gray ash
October 31, 152.20E
plumes that drifted N and NW. Fine 2004
2006
ashfall was reported from Namanula,
including surrounding areas
downwind, and E Rabaul town.
Seismicity was at background levels
and the rate of ground deformation
was low.
Sources: Herman Patia, Rabaul

Volcano Observatory, Darwin
Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre -
Sakura-Jima, Kyushu, Japan
Based on information from JMA, the

Tokyo VAAC reported that on 25 and
27 October, ash plumes from Sakura-
31.58N
jima reached altitudes of 2.1-2.4 km
130.67E
(7,000-8,000 ft) a.s.l. Plumes drifted
October 31,
SW and NE, respectively. 2005
2006
Source: Tokyo Volcanic Ash
WEB CAM
Advisory Center - "Report provided
Program."
Santa Maria, Guatemala
According to the Washington VAAC,

minor emissions from Santa Mar s
Santiaguito lava-dome complex on
26, 27, and 30 October were visible
on satellite imagery. The small
14.8N, 91.5W
plumes of gas and light ash drifted October 31,
2005, ongoing
predominantly W. 2006
Source: Washington Volcanic Ash

Program."
Semeru, Java, Indonesia
Based on a pilot report, the Darwin

VAAC reported that on 25 and 26
8.1S, 112.9E
October, an eruption plume from October 31,
2005
Semeru reached 7.6 km (25,000 ft) 2006
a.s.l. and drifted W. On 30 October,
ash-and-steam emissions were
detected on satellite imagery.
Source: Darwin VAAC - "Report
provided courtesy of the
Soufriere Hills, Montserrat, West
Indies
During 20-27 October, lava-dome

growth at Soufri Hills continued
and was concentrated on the NE part
of the edifice. Rockfalls and small
pyroclastic flows originating from the
active lobe traveled down the NE
flank. Several small stubby spine-like
structures were observed on the SE
summit region of the dome.
Based on information from the MVO,

satellite imagery, and the Piarco 16.7N, 62.2W
October 31,
MWO, the Washington VAAC 2006, ongoing
2006
reported that continuous ash and gas
emissions during 25-31 October
produced plumes that drifted NW and
W. Plumes reached altitudes of 2.1
km (7,000 ft) a.s.l. A hotspot was
detected on satellite imagery during
25-27 October and 29 October.
Sources: Montserrat Volcano

Observatory, Washington Volcanic
Ash Advisory Center - "Report
Mount St. Helens, USA
46.2N,
During 25-31 October, the lava dome
122.2W
at Mount St. Helens continued to
October 31,
grow and produce small rockfalls. On 2006, ongoing
2006
29 October, a M 3.2 earthquake was
accompanied by a rockfall that
WEB CAM
produced a small plume. The plume
filled the crater to just above the rim
and quickly dissipated.
Source: US Geological Survey

Cascades Volcano Observatory -
Sulu Range, New Britain Island,
Papua New Guinea
The RVO reported that during 28

September-24 October, seismic
activity in the Sulu Range declined.
Vapor plumes that were emitted from
the Silanga Hotsprings were visible
5.50S,
about 20 km NE from Bialla. A The Sulu Range
October 31, 150.942E
moderately strong sulfur smell from has not been active
2006
the Silanga and Talopu hot springs in historical times.
continued to be reported.
Source:Herman Patia, Rabaul

Volcano Observatory - "Report
Suwanose-Jima Ryukyu Islands,
Japan
Based on information from JMA, the

Tokyo VAAC reported that on 27 and
28 October, ash plumes from
Suwanose-jima reached altitudes of 29.53N,
1.8 km (6,000 ft) a.s.l. Plumes drifted October 31, 129.72E
2005
E on 28 October. 2006

Program."
Tungurahua, Ecuador October 31, 1.467S,
2006, ongoing
2006 78.44W
IG reported that during 25-30 October
emissions from Tungurahua produced
plumes consisting of steam, gas, and
moderate ash that reached altitudes of
7-8 km (23,000-26,000 ft) a.s.l. and
drifted W, SW, NW, and NE. Ashfall
was reported from several towns
downwind of the plumes including
Penipe (8 km SW), Bilbao (8 km W),
Cotalo (13 km NM), and Banos (8 km
NNE). On 28 October, incandescent
blocks were expelled from the
summit and rolled about 500 m down
the W and E flanks. The next day, a
lahar traveled NNW down the
Mandur drainage and muddy water
swelled in the Vazcun drainage.
Source:Instituto Geofisico-Escuela
Politecnica Nacional, Washington
Volcanic Ash Advisory Center -
Ubinas, Peru
Based on pilot reports, the Buenos

Aires VAAC reported continuous
emissions from Ubinas on 25, 27-28,
and 30-31 October. The plumes rose
16.355S,
to 5.5-8.5 km (18,000-28,000 ft) a.s.l.
October 31, 70.903W
and drifted N, NW, SW, and W. 1969
2006
Sources: Buenos Aires Volcanic Ash
Program."
Arenal, Costa Rica
10.46N,
October 24, 84.70W
In September, activity originating 2006, ongoing
2006
from Arenal's Crater C consisted of
gas emissions, sporadic Strombolian
eruptions, lava flows traveling N, and
occasional avalanches from lava-flow
fronts. Blocks from the lava-flow
fronts traveled N, NE, and NW,
periodically reaching vegetation
where they produced small fires.
Volcanic activity was at relatively
low levels, however, with few
eruptions occurring and a small
amount of pyroclastic material
ejected. Eruptions produced ash
plumes that rose about 2.2 km (7,100
ft) a.s.l. Ash and acid rain fell on the
NE and SE flanks. Small avalanches
of volcanic material traveled down
several ravines. Crater D showed only
fumarolic activity.
Source: Observatorio Vulcanologico

y Sismologico de Costa Rica-
Universidad Nacional (OVISICORI-
UNA) - "Report provided courtesy of
the Smithsonian's Global Volcanism
Barren Island, Andaman Islands,
India
Based on pilot observations, the

Darwin VAAC reported that ash-and-
steam plumes from Barren Island on
19 and 20 October reached altitudes 12.29N,
of 1.5 km (5,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted October 24, 93.88E
2006
WNW. 2006
Source: Darwin Volcanic Ash

Program."
Fourpeaked, Alaska Peninsula, USA 58.770N,
October 24, 153.672W
unknown
The AVO reported that earthquake 2006
activity and gas emissions continued
at Fourpeaked during 14-20 October.
Steam-and-gas plumes rising from a
location near the summit were visible
on a recently installed web camera.
Source: Alaska Volcano Observatory

- "Report provided courtesy of the
Metis Shoal, Tonga Islands
Further information obtained

regarding the floating pumice rafts
between Tonga and Fiji indicated that
the source was Metis Shoal. Mariners
in the region were being informed of
this activity in early September via
"Rag of the Air" radio broadcasts
from Fiji. The earliest report found to
this point comes from a boat with
callsign KB1LSY, noting that "thick
pumice" slowed them for 30 minutes
during the early morning hours of 28
August as they were approaching the
northern islands of the Lau Group in
19.18S,
Fiji, about 500 km NW of Metis
174.87W
Shoal. By 15 October yachts sailing October 24,
n/a
between Tonga and Fiji reported no 2006
remaining pumice.
(Original report - 9/26) Reports have

been received of large pumice rafts in
the Fiji Islands. On 16 September
observers aboard the M/V National
Geographic Endeavour noted almost
continuous rows of pumice that day
as they traveled about 90 km east-
southeast to Vatoa Island, where the
pumice was present on the beaches.
Large rafts of pumice were also
passing through the northern Lau
Group around Naitauba Island on 19
September. The source of the pumice
is unknown at this time.
Sources: Sources: Encore II Crew,
KB1LSY Crew, Bob McDavitt's
Weathergram McDavitt's Pacific
Weathergrams, David Cothran, M/V
National Geographic Endeavour;
David Forsythe, Naitauba Island, Fiji
Poas, Costa Rica
OVSICORI-UNA reported that

during September, Laguna Caliente, a
summit lake of Po?s, was mostly gray
in color and produced gas columns
that reached the crater rim. The level
of the lake had dropped 5 cm with
respect to August measurements and
had a temperature of 46 degrees
Celsius. On 25 October, a phreatic
eruption produced a plume that
drifted 12 km SW of the crater. 10.20N,
Fumarolic activity from a pyroclastic October 24, 84.23W
1996
cone on the floor of the crater 2006
produced gas plumes that drifted W
and SW. New points of gas discharge
were noted from the crater floor, the
SE and NE crater walls, the N terrace,
and the NE edge of the crater.

Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-
Sangay, Ecuador
Based on a pilot report, the 2.0S, 78.3W

October 24,
Washington VAAC reported that on 2005
2006
21 October, emission plumes from
Sangay reached altitudes of 6.7 km
(22,000 ft) a.s.l.
Program."
Turrialba, Costa Rica
Fumarolic activity and gas discharge

in and to the W of Turrialba's central
crater continued throughout
September. New points of gas
discharge, small landslides, and
accelerated vegetation die-off were 10.025N,
noted from various locations within October 24, 83.767W
1866
the crater. 2006

Universidad Nacional (OVSICORI-
San Miguel, El Salvador
Servicio Nacional de Estudios

Territoriales (SNET) reported on 10
October that an Alert Level for San
Miguel was established as Green
within 4 km from the center of the
crater due to a slight increase in
seismic activity. On 15 October, the 13.431N,
Alert Level was increased to Yellow October 17, 88.272W
2004
due to further increases in seismic 2006
activity, but then decreased to Green
again the next day.
Source: Servicio Nacional de

Estudios Territoriales (SNET) -
Piton de la Fournaise, Reunion Island,
Indian Ocean
The eruption of Piton de la Fournaise

that began on 30 August continued
within the Dolomieu Crater. A new
cone about 20-25 m high was formed
in the SE part of Dolomieu and lava
flows up to 10 m thick filled up 75%
of the crater floor. The E part of the 21.23S,
crater was filled up to the rim where 55.71E
lava flowed over and down the flank October 17,
2004
for hundreds of meters. On 9 October, 2006
a new crater formed about 100 m SW
of the first one. WEB CAM
Source: Thomas Staudacher,

Observatoire Volcanologique du
Piton de la Fournaise via the Volcano
Listserv - "Report provided courtesy
of the Smithsonian's Global
Program."
Ruapehu, New Zealand
A M 2.8 earthquake centered at

Ruapehu was recorded on 4 October.
Scientists visited the summit crater
lake on 7 October and confirmed that
a small hydrothermal eruption had
occurred. The lake water level had
risen 1 m since a previous
39.3S, 175.6E
measurement, and evidence suggested
wave action up to 4-5 m above the October 10,
1997
surface of the lake. The lake 2006
temperature was 22.5C, up from 15C.
WEB CAM
Ruapehu remained at Volcanic Alert
Level 1 (some signs of volcano
unrest).
Sources: US Geological Survey

Taal, Philippines
PHIVOLCS reported ongoing seismic

unrest at Taal on 26 September.
During 25-26 September, 29 volcanic
earthquakes occurred with five felt
Modified Mercalli intensities of II to
III. Epicenters were dispersed NE, N, 14.002N,
and NW. Approximately five seismic October 10, 120.993E
1977
events in a 24-hour period is typical 2006
during quiet periods.

Fuego, Guatemala
INSIVUMEH reports noted that

frequent explosions at Fuego during
14-29 September sent incandescent
lava 75-100 m above the crater rim
and generated hot avalanches SW 14.5N, 90.9W
towards the Taniluy? River. October 03,
2006, ongoing
2006
Source: Instituto Nacional de
Sismologia, Vulcanologia,
Meteorologia, e Hidrologia - "Report
Pacaya, Guatemala
Lava flows have continued at Pacaya

during 14-29 September, as reported
14.4N, 90.6W
by INSIVUMEH. The flows slowly October 03,
2005
advanced W towards Cerro Chino and 2006
NE towards Cerro Grande. White
fumarolic emissions continued to rise
from the MacKenney Cone.
Source: Instituto Nacional de
Sismologia, Vulcanologia,
Meteorologia, e Hidrologia
(INSIVUMEH) - "Report provided
Program."
Dempo, Sumatra, Indonesia
Increased seismicity at Dempo

resulted in an elevation of the hazard
status to Alert Level 2.
4.03S,
September 26, 103.41E
Source: Center of Volcanology and 1994
2006
Geological Hazard Mitigation
(CVGHM) - "Report provided
Program."
Simbo, Solomon Islands
Residents on Simbo Island reported

feeling seven "earth tremors" on 21
September, and others in recent days.
None of the events caused damage.
The Solomon Islands Seismology
Division does not have monitoring
equipment on the island.
Simbo is a small island in the 8.292S,

Western Solomons with three September 26, 156.52E
1910 +/- 10 years
truncated andesitic volcanic centers. 2006
The only known Potassium-Argon
date suggests a Pliocene-to-
Pleistocene age for the island,
although the southern half of the
island is thermally active. Fault-
related fumarolic areas and hot
springs are found near saltwater Lake
Ove along the western coast and
along the eastern coast near Mount
Patukio, which has a steep-walled
summit crater. Grover (1955) noted
native accounts of the explosive
enlargement of the Ngusunu
explosion crater along the SW coast
of the island one to two generations
prior to 1955, probably after a visit by
Guppy in 1882. Press reports
mentioned an eruption at Simbo in
the early 1900s that forced the
evacuation of villages beside Lake
Ove, immediately adjacent to
Ngusunu crater.
Source: Solomon Star - "Report

Raoul Island, New Zealand
The Alert Level at Raoul Island was

lowered to 0 (on a scale of 0-5) on 18
September due to a general decline in
activity. Since April 2006, no
significant earthquake activity had
occurred within ~30 km of the island, 29.27S,
the water in Green Lake dropped to September 19, 177.92W
1965
the pre-eruption level, and on-going 2006
hydrothermal activity returned to
normal.
Source: New Zealand GeoNet Project

Tengger Caldera, Java, Indonesia
CVGHM reported that the Alert

Level for Tengger Caldera was 7.942S,
lowered one level to 2 (on a scale of September 19, 112.950E
2004
1-4) on 18 September due to 2006
decreased activity.
Source:Center of Volcanology and

Program."
Etna, Sicily, Italy
On 14 July, a fissure opened on the E

flank of the SE Crater of Etna and
produced a lava flow that traveled E
to the Valle del Bove. Moderate
strombolian activity from the E flank
of the SE Crater produced a small
amount of ashfall on Catania (~25 km
SSE of the volcano). The lava flow
reached a maximum distance of 3 km
within the Valle del Bove and ceased
on 24 July. On 26 July, strong
explosions were heard from the rim
of the NE crater.
On 31 August, strombolian activity

from the summit of the SE Crater
produced lapilli and bombs that fell 37.7N, 15.0E
mainly in the crater. The ejecta filled
September 12,
the crater and overflowed on the E 2005
2006
side on 5 September, forming lava
falls that accumulated in a steep-sided WEB CAM
circular depression on the middle part
of the E flank. On 7 September, the
sluggish a'a' flow breached the E rim
and spread out on the E flank of the
SE Crater and towards the Valle del
Bove rim. Explosive activity at the
SE Crater summit produced lava
blocks that fell to the base of the
cone.
On 10 September, a rockfall from a

wall that divided the SE Crater and
the depression on the middle part of
the E flank produced an ash plume
that drifted W. Lava flows and
strombolian activity from the summit
of the SE Crater continued on 11
September.
Source: Istituto Nazionale di
Geofisica e Vulcanologia Sezione di
Catania - "Reports provided courtesy
Program."
Talang, Sumatra, Indonesia
CVGHM raised the Alert Level at

Talang to 3 (on a scale of 1-4) on 9
September due to an increase in
tremor. On 10 September, a brownish
plume rose 250 m above the summit
1.0S, 100.7E
(~10,000 ft a.s.l.). September 12,
2005
2006
Sources: Directorate of Volcanology
and Geological Hazard Mitigation,
Washington Post - "Report provided
Program."
Manam, Papua New Guinea

steam plumes from Manam reached
altitudes of 4.6 km (15,000 ft) a.s.l.
and drifted W on 1 and 2 September.
Steam plumes with possible ash were 4.1S, 145.0E
September 05,
visible on satellite imagery below 3 2005
2006
km (10,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted NE.

Advisory Centre - "Report provided
Program."
Popocatepetl, Mexico 19.0N, 98.6W
September 05,
2004
According to the Washington VAAC, 2006
emissions of gas, steam, and possibly
ash from Popocat?petl were visible WEB CAM
from the camera operated by (Select
CENEPRED during 4-5 September. Tamano A or
The resulting eruption cloud drifted B)
W and did not rise high above the
summit. Incandescence was
periodically observed at the summit.
Sources: Washington Volcanic Ash

Advisory Center- "Reports provided
Program."
Ulawun, New Britain, Papua New
Guinea

steam plumes from Ulawun drifted
SW and S on 30 August and 2 5.04S, 151.3E
September 05,
September, respectively. 2003
2006
Sources: Darwin Volcanic Ash
Program."
Dukono, Halmahera, Indonesia
According to the Darwin VAAC, a

diffuse ash plume from Dukono was
visible on satellite imagery extending
1.70N,
NNE on 23 August.
August 29, 127.87E
2005
2006
Advisory Center- "Report provided
Program."
Lascar, Chile 23.57S,
August 29,
2002 67.73W
2006
Several small phreatic explosions
occurred at Lascar during May, July,
and August. The explosions were
separated in time by up to several
weeks. The last observed explosion,
lasting for about five minutes on 14
August, produced a plume that
reached a height of 450 m above the
crater (19,800 ft a.s.l.) and dispersed
ESE.
Source: Jorge Clavero-Chilean

Geological Survey (Sernageomin)
and Juan Cayupi-Chilean Emergency
Office (ONEMI) via the Volcano
Listserv - "Reports provided courtesy
Program."
Oyama, Miyake-jima, Izu Islands,
Japan
The Tokyo VAAC reported that an

eruption at Miyake-jima on 23
August generated plumes that reached
altitudes of ~1.5 km (~5,000 ft) a.s.l.
and drifted SE. Ash was not identified August 29, 34.08N,
2004
on satellite imagery. 2006 139.53E

Program."
Augustine, Cook Inlet, Alaska USA
AVO reduced the Concern Color 59.363N,

Code at Augustine from Yellow to 153.43W
Green on 9 August. Seismic, satellite, August 15,
2005
and visual data indicated a decrease 2006
in activity to background levels. No
changes were seen at the summit WEB CAM
during the previous several months.
AVO warned that the lava dome and
surrounding area were still unstable
despite the apparent cessation of lava-
dome growth. Rockfalls and
avalanches were still occurring,
especially on the N flank, and may
continue for several weeks or months.

- "Reports provided courtesy of the
Karangetang, Siau Island, Indonesia
During 7-13 August, lava flows from

Karangetang advanced E toward the
Batu Awang river. Incandescent
rockfalls originating from lava flow
fronts were also observed. The Alert 2.78N,
Level remained at 3. August 15, 125.48E
2005
2006
Source:Center of Volcanology and
Program."
Merapi, Java, Indonesia
Based on pilot reports, the Darwin

VAAC reported that eruption plumes
from Merapi on 2 and 3 August
reached altitudes of ~6.1 km (~20,000
ft) a.s.l. and drifted W. According to
7.54S,
CVGHM, during 2-4 August rockfalls
August 08, 110.44E
traveled 1 km SE toward the Gendol 2006
2006
river and gas plumes reached a
maximum of 400 m above the summit
(10,900 ft a.s.l.). On 3 August, the
Alert Level was lowered to 2 (on a
scale of 1-4).
Sources: Center of Volcanology and

(CVGHM), Darwin Volcanic Ash
Advisory Center - "Reports provided
Program."
Canlaon, Philippines
Based on interpretations of seismic

data, an explosion at Canlaon that
lasted more than 10 minutes occurred
on 23 July. An ash column was not
observed due to cloud cover. Trace
deposits of ash fell up to 9 km ENE
of the crater in the neighborhoods of
Pula, Malaiba, and Lumapao. On 24 10.4N,
July, PHIVOLCS reported a total of 123.1E
2003 July 25, 2006
16 volcanic earthquakes, 3 short-
duration tremors, and 2 earthquakes
indicating small explosions. Ash was
not observed.

Galeras, Colombia
On 17 July, INGEOMINAS (Instituto

Colombiano de Geolog?a y Miner?a)
reported that after the 12 July
eruption of Galeras, seismic activity
decreased considerably. Observations
1.22N,
of the dome and secondary craters in
77.37W
the W sector post-12 July, showed 2005 July 25, 2006
small physical changes. Gas plumes
with little steam content were
observed without associated seismic
activity. Galeras remained at Alert
Level 3 (changes in the behavior of
volcanic activity have been noted).
Sources: Instituto Colombiano de

Geologia y Mineria - "Report
Shiveluch, Kamchatka, Russia
Eruption plumes from Shiveluch that

were visible on satellite imagery on
19 July reached a maximum altitude
of 5.2 km (17,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted
56.65N,
SE. Ash was not visible on satellite
161.36E
imagery. A thermal anomaly over the
dome was visible on 17 and 18 July. 2005, ongoing July 25, 2006
Sources: Kamchatkan Volcanic

WEB CAM
Eruption Response Team, Tokyo
Bamus, New Britain Island, Papua
New Guinea
RVO reported that white vapor

emissions from Bamus were observed
during 1000-1130 on 12 July. The
emissions were forceful and slightly 5.20S,
gray in color at 1110. The vapor 151.23E
1886 (+/- 8 years) July 25, 2006
plume drifted SSE.
Source: Herman Patia, Rabaul

Volcanological Observatory -
"Reports provided courtesy of the
Lopevi, Central Islands, Vanuatu
16.507S,
Based on pilot reports, the Wellington
168.346E
VAAC reported that an eruption 2003 July 11, 2006
plume from Lopevi on 5 July reached
an unknown altitude and smoke-and-
ash plumes on 8 and 9 July reached
altitudes of 3.7 km (12,000 ft) a.s.l.
and drifted E and SE, respectively.
Sources: Wellington VAAC - "Report

Batu Tara, Lesser Sunda Islands,
Indonesia

VAAC reported that an ash cloud
from Batu Tara reached an altitude of
1.5 km (5,000 ft) a.s.l. and drifted 7.792S,
NW. Ash was not identified on 123.579E
1852 July 04, 2006
satellite imagery.

Program."
Anatahan, Mariana Islands
According to the Washington VAAC,

a pilot reported that on 26 June an ash
cloud from Anatahan reached
altitudes of 3 km (10,000 ft) a.s.l. and 16.35N,
drifted W. 145.67E
1920 June 27, 2006
Program."
Bagana, Bougainville Island, Papua
New Guinea
6.14S,
155.19E
An ash-and-steam plume from 2005, ongoing June 20, 2006
Bagana was visible on satellite
imagery on 18 June drifting SW. The
height of the plume was not reported.
Program."
Tongariro Volcanic Centre, New
Zealand
According to GeoNet on 14 June,

seismic activity at Ngauruhoe (the
youngest cone of the Tongariro 39.13S,
complex) remained elevated. The 175.642E
2005 June 20, 2006
Alert Level remained at 1.
Source: GeoNet Space Centre -

Heard Island, Southern Indian Ocean,
Australia
From 11 March to 2 June,

MODVOLC (a MODIS thermal alert
system) detected approximately 10
alerts from or near the summit of Big
Ben on Heard Island. The area of the 53.106S,
thermal anomaly was 1 to 2 pixels in 73.513E
2004 June 13, 2006
size (1 pixel=1 km).
Source: Hawai'i Institute of

Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP)
Thermal Alerts Team - "Report
Karthala, Comoros Islands, Indian
Ocean 11.75N,
43.38E
2005 June 06, 2006
According to news articles, eruptive
activity at Karthala that occurred on
28 May had ceased. No seismic
activity was detected during 31 May
to 1 June.
Sources: Reuters, AFP - "Report

Aoba, Ambae Island, Vanuatu
According to news reports, on 28

May aerial observations by scientists
from the Department of Geology and
Mines revealed that Lake Voui of
Aoba volcano had changed from blue
15.40S,
to red in color. Aoba remains at an
167.83E
Alert level 2, which means the crater 1995 May 30, 2006
area is restricted.
Sources: Commision of Volcanic

Lakes (CVL), The Age News -
Kelut, Java, Indonesia

VAAC reported that on 18 May an
ash plume from Kelut reached a
height of 5.5 km (18,000 ft) a.s.l. The
report was not verified by ground 7.9S, 112.3E
observations. 1990 May 23, 2006

Program."
Bezymianny, Kamchatka, Russia 55.98N,
2005 May 16, 2006 160.58E
Following an explosive eruption at
Bezymianny on 9 May, seismicity
was at background levels on 10 May.
In addition, fumarolic plumes were WEB CAM
observed and lava flows probably
extended from the lava dome. On 11
May the Concern Color Code at
Bezymianny was reduced from
Orange to Yellow. On 12 May,
seismicity remained at background
levels and gas-and-steam plumes
were visible.
Source: Kamchatkan Volcanic

Eruption Response Team - "Report
San Cristobal, Nicaragua
Phreatomagmatic eruptions began at

San Cristobal on 21 April. Seismic
tremor increased at the volcano that
same day around 1300. Small
explosions produced gas-and-ash 12.7N, 87.0W
plumes during 21-23 April that
deposited small amounts of ash in 2005 May 02, 2006
nearby towns.
WEB CAM
Source: Instituto Nicaraguense de
Estudios Territoriales (INETER) -
Veniaminof, Alaska Peninsula, USA
During 7-14 April, seismicity at 56.17N,

Veniaminof remained at low levels, 159.38W
but above background. Views of the
2004 April 18, 2006
volcano were obscured by clouds
during the report period, and AVO
received no information about ash WEB CAM
clouds or activity at the volcano. The
Concern Color Code remained at
Yellow.

Ol Doinyo Lengai, Tanzania, Africa
On Frederick Belton's Ol Doinyo

Lengai website, a bush pilot reported
that a lava flow and lava fountains
were emitted on the 30th, but there
were no ash emissions. A steam
plume was visible that may have been
mistakenly described as ash in news
reports. According to an observer in
Tanzania, on 4 April a very large lava
flow was visible on the volcano's W
flank. The lava flow was over 1 km
long and had traveled down the flank
of the volcano and into a gorge. There
were no signs that the flow was still
hot. Photographs revealed that
another lava flow may have traveled
2.751S,
W of the volcano on 3 or 4 April. On
35.902E
7 or 8 April, active lava was 2004 April 11, 2006
contained within a new lava lake.
Contrary to news reports, a local tour
operator stated that there were no
evacuations from villages near the
volcano.
The eruption began at Ol Doinyo

Lengai around 30 March, forcing
villagers living near the volcano to
evacuate. An article stated that,
"Eyewitnesses said they heard a
rumbling noise before the volcano
began discharging ash and lava,
prompting local residents to flee the
area in their hundreds. District
officials estimated that about 3,000
people from Nayobi, Magadini,
Engaruka, Malambo, Ngaresero,
Gelai Bomba, and Kitumbeine
villages left their homes within a few
hours of the eruption..." There were
reports of polluted water sources and
destroyed vegetation, but no reports
of deaths or injuries.
Sources: Frederick Belton's Ol

Doinyo Lengai website, Guardian
News, Associated Press - "Report
Santa Ana, El Salvador
During 24-31 March, activity at Santa

Ana decreased to low levels in
comparison to the previous 4 months
of moderate activity. During the
report period, seismicity was at
relatively low levels, steam plumes
occasionally rose ~200 m above the
volcano (or 8,400 ft a.s.l.), and the
13.9N, 89.6W
daily sulfur-dioxide flux was between
2005 April 04, 2006
500 and 1,000 metric tons. The Alert
Level remained at red, the highest
level, within 5 km of the volcano's
summit crater.
Sources: Servicio Nacional de

Estudios Territoriales (SNET)-
Akan, Hokkaido, Japan
A very small eruption occurred at

Me-Akan (also called Meakan-dake, 43.384N,
which means Meakan Peak) of the March 21, 144.013E
1998
Akan volcanic complex on 21 March. 2006
Tremor began around 0628, the
eruption apparently began around
0637, and an alert was issued by JMA
at 0643. The eruption occurred from
the volcano's NE flank. Ash was
deposited on snow as far as 10 km SE
of the volcano. The volcano is in a
remote area and no populated areas
were threatened. Me-Akan last
erupted in 1998.
Sources: Gunma University, Reuters -

Atka, Aluetian Islands, United States
AVO decreased the Concern Color

Code at Korovin volcano in the Atka
volcanic center from Yellow to Green
(the lowest level) on 8 March. After
raising the Concern Color Code on 22
February in response to increased
seismicity, the rate of micro-
52.381N,
earthquakes stabilized and then
March 14, 174.154W
declined. During 1-8 March, 1998
2006
seismicity was near background
levels and no unusual activity was
seen on satellite imagery or by
observers.

Ebeko, Kuril Islands, Russia
KVERT reported that no significant

changes in activity at Ebeko had been
seen on satellite imagery or via 50.68N,
ground observations for several February 28, 156.02E
1991
months, so the Concern Color Code 2006
was reduced from Yellow to Green,
the lowest level. A weak scent of
hydrogen sulfide and chlorine gas
was sometimes noted in the town of
Severo-Kurilsk, ~7 km from the
volcano. Ebeko is not seismically
monitored. According to KVERT, it
is likely that activity will stay at low
levels and an explosive eruption is
not imminent in the next weeks.

Guagua Pichincha, Ecuador
On 5 February, beginning around

1300, three small gas emissions
occurred at Guagua Pichincha. IG
reported that this phreatic activity was
associated with accumulated rainfall
that was heated by magmatic material
from the previous eruptive period,
and was not related to renewed
volcanic activity. After the emissions,
a series of seismic signals associated
with rockfalls and long-period
earthquakes were recorded. The 0.17S, 78.6W
February 14,
signals were related to degassing that 2004
2006
commonly occurs after emissions.
Cloudy conditions prevented
observations of the volcano. IG
recommended that people should not
visit Guagua Pichincha's crater since
emissions or explosions can occur at
any time.
Source: Instituto Geofisico-Escuela

Politecnica Nacional - "Report
Garbuna Group, New Britain, Papua 5.45S,
New Guinea January 31, 150.03E
Unknown
2006
During 1-15 January, the two vents at
the summit of Garbuna emitted small-
to-moderate volumes of gas. There
were no other unusual observations.
Seismicity was low and dominated by
occasional low-frequency
earthquakes.
Sources: Darwin Volcanic Ash

Advisory Center - - "Report provided
Program."
Planchon-Peteroa, Chile
The Buenos Aires VAAC reported

that based on SIGMETs, increased
fumarolic activity occurred at
Planchon-Peteroa and Cerro Azul
beginning on 26 January. Servicio
Nacional de Geolog?a y Mineria
clarified that intense fumarolic
35.240S,
activity only occurred at Planchon-
70.570W
Petero around 25 January. Increased January 31,
1998, ongoing
fumarolic activity is normal during 2006
the summer when snow melts in the
crater and more steam is produced.
Sources: Servicio Nacional de

Geologia y Mineria, Buenos Aires
Mount Martin, Alaska USA
Increased seismicity occurred at

Martin during 8 January until at least 58.172N,
15 January. About 300 earthquakes January 17, 155.361W
1953
were recorded during 2 days, in 2006
contrast to the background rate of ~25
earthquakes per month since the
seismic network was installed in
1996. AVO increased the Concern
Color Code to Yellow. AVO reported
that swarms of earthquakes of this
nature are common at volcanoes such
as Martin, and do not suggest that
eruptive activity is imminent. Satellite
data showed nothing unusual,
although steaming is frequently
observed at the volcano.
Spurr, Southwestern Alaska, USA
Seismicity remained above

background levels at Spurr during 30
December to 6 January. Clear satellite
61.299N,
and web camera views of the volcano
152.251W
showed no unusual activity. Spurr
January 10,
remained at Concern Color Code 1992
2006
Yellow.
WEB CAM
Soputan, Sulawesi, Indonesia
A phreatic eruption began at Soputan

on 26 December around 1230
following heavy rain that contacted
lava at the volcano's summit. On 27
December at 0400, a Strombolian
eruption began that lasted ~50
minutes. Incandescent volcanic
material was ejected ~35 m, and
1.11N, 124E
avalanches of volcanic material December 27,
2005
traveled as far as 750 m E. Around 2005
0640 the avalanches became larger,
as pyroclastic avalanches occurred
from the edge of the lava. The
avalanches extended 200 m E, and
booming noises were heard as far as 5
km from the summit. The Darwin
VAAC reported that an ash plume
reached a height of ~5.8 km (~19,000
ft) a.s.l. and drifted SE.
As of 28 December, eruptive activity
continued at Soputan, producing ash
plumes to a height of ~1 km above
the volcano (or 9,100 ft a.s.l.).
Strombolian eruptions continued,
ejecting incandescent volcanic
material up to 200 m above the
summit (or 6,500 ft a.s.l.). Pyroclastic
avalanches traveled ~500 m E and
SW. This was the fourth event at
Soputan in 2005, with previous
activity on 14 and 20 April, and on 12
September. The Alert Level remained
at 2, since the volcano is about 11 km
from the nearest settlement. Visitors
are prohibited from climbing
Soputan's summit and camping
around Kawah Masem.
Sources: Directorate of Volcanology

and Geological Hazard Mitigation,
Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory
Center - "Report provided courtesy of
Tanaga, Aleutian Islands, USA
AVO reported on 25 November that

for several weeks seismicity beneath
young volcanic vents on Tanaga
Island decreased significantly from
levels recorded in early October.
Satellite images of the island showed
no anomalous temperatures or 51.88N,
evidence of ash emissions. AVO November 29, 178.15W
2004
reported that based on the decrease in 2005
earthquake counts and frequency of
tremor episodes, the likelihood of an
eruption had diminished. Therefore,
AVO downgraded the Concern Color
Code from Yellow to Green.

San Cristobal, Nicaragua
There was an increase in seismicity at

San Crist?bal beginning on 19
November. Increased tremor was
interpreted as being related to gas and
ash emissions. Ash fell W of the
volcano and near the town of
12.7N, 87.0W
Chinandega, ~15 km SW of the November 22,
1998
volcano. The amount of tremor 2005
decreased later.
Source: Instituto Nicaraguense de

Estudios Territoriales (INETER) -
Avachinsky, Kamchatka, Russia
KVERT reported on 8 November that

the number and energy of shallow
earthquakes below Avachinsky
increased during the previous month.
A weak thermal anomaly near the
volcano's summit was visible on
satellite imagery on 7 November.
KVERT reported that based on these 53.25N,
changes the possibility of sudden ash November 22, 158.83E
2005
explosions at Avachinsky had 2005
increased, so the Concern Color Code
was raised from Green to Yellow on 8
November.

Reventador, Ecuador 0.07S,
November 22,
2005 77.67W
2005
During 7-13 November, the number
of earthquakes at Reventador
increased slightly in comparison to
the previous week. Small explosions
produced ash plumes that rose to a
height of ~4.6 km (15,000 ft) a.s.l.
Sources: Instituto Geofisico-Escuela

Poltecnica Nacional, Washington
Montagu Island, South Sandwich
Islands
A partly cloudy ASTER satellite

image from 3 November appeared to
indicate that large-scale effusive
activity from the summit of Montagu
Island (Mt. Belinda) had ceased. The
image showed that the 3.5-km-long
lava flow noted in previous reports
(observed entering the sea in an
image from 23 September 2005) had
extended the shoreline on the N side 58.42S,
of island. The new land extended November 15, 26.33W
2005, ongoing
approximately 500 m from the 2005
previous shoreline, and was ~400 m
wide, equating to a total area of 0.2
square kilometers.
Source: Hawai'i Institute of

Thermal Alerts Team and John
Smellie of the British Antarctic
Survey - "Report provided courtesy
Program."
Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of
1.52S, 29.25E
the Congo November 15,
2005
2005
On 13 November, a plume that may
have contained some ash was emitted
from Nyiragongo and seen on satellite
imagery.
Source: Toulouse Volcanic Ash

Program."
Katmai, Alaska, USA
Strong winds in the Katmai area

picked up loose ash deposited during
the 1912 eruption and carried it E
over Kodiak Island. AVO recorded a
large area of resuspended ash on
satellite imagery. The National 58.28N,
Weather Service estimated that the November 08, 154.96W
1912
top of the plume was at 1.5 km (5,000 2005
ft) a.s.l. Katmai remained at Concern
Color Code Green.

Kliuchevskoi, Kamchatka, Russia
Seismic activity at Kliuchevskoi was

at background levels during the
previous 3 weeks and no activity was
observed on satellite imagery. Since
56.06N,
there were no indications that an
160.64E
eruption was imminent at
November 08,
Kliuchevskoi, KVERT reduced the 2005, ongoing
2005
Concern Color Code from Yellow to
Green on 4 November.
WEB CAM
Sierra Negra, Galapagos Islands
According to IG, an eruption began at

Sierra Negra on the S end of Isabela
Island on 22 October at 1730 when an
explosion was heard by many people
in the town of Villamil, 20 km SE of
the volcano. The eruption was
preceded by a seismic event on 22
October at 1438, and by earthquakes
on 19 October and 2 weeks earlier.
The Washington VAAC recorded an
ash cloud on satellite imagery at 1745
at a height of ~15.2 km (50,000 ft)
a.s.l. moving SW, and a very large
hotspot. The ash cloud may have
reached a height of 20 km (65,600 ft)
a.s.l. Extensive lava fountains were
seen rising to heights of 200-300 m
along a segment of the Sierra Negra
rim. Incandescent lava flowed several
0.83S,
kilometers down the outer NW flank
November 01, 91.17W
of the volcano's edifice and tourists 2005
2005
reported seeing two lava flows
descending the N flank. The exact
orientation of flows on the volcano's
flanks was not clear from early
reports. Scientists did not see active
lava flows in this area or evidence of
flows entering the sea during an
overflight on 23 October.
During a visit to Sierra Negra on 23

October, scientists saw that the
eruption originated from four
adjacent craters aligned along a 500-
m-long fracture at the base of the
inner wall of the volcano's caldera in
the NE sector. Lava traveled from
four principal vents southwards with
exceptional force, volume, and speed
downslope in several main channels.
Based on observations, the main lava
river traveled nearly 20 m/sec as it
left its source vents. Two vents
mainly supplied lava to the many lava
rivers flowing southward over the
northern caldera bench and then down
onto the caldera floor. The feeding
fracture apparently extended
westward along the inner wall, but
then climbed up onto the caldera rim
itself where its trace was not obvious.
However, small vents with
fountaining and incandescent lava
were observed on the rim along this
general fracture system, implying that
the active fracture extended for about
2 km W of the main vents.
By 23 October around 1530, the lava

formed one large flow that was 1-1.5
km wide and had progressed ~7 km
southeastward along the base of the
eastern interior wall of the caldera,
then westward along the southern
wall reaching a point almost halfway
across the caldera. The volume of
lava ejected at this time was
estimated at 25 million cubic meters.
On 26 October, there were reports
that lava was no longer emitted from
one of the four principal vents. No
populated areas on the island were
threatened by the eruption.
Sources:Instituto Geofisico-Escuela
Nyamuragira, Democratic Republic
of Congo
November 01,
Beginning on 23 October, GVO 2004 1.4S, 29.2E
2005
recorded heightened seismic activity
along the East African Rift and
around the Virunga volcanoes when a
swarm of long-period earthquakes
occurred N of Nyamuragira. More
than 140 events were recorded at a
station 19 km E of the volcano. On 27
October at 1500, another swarm of
long-period earthquakes began
beneath the same area. More than 300
events were recorded until at least 28
October. At 2010, a M 4.5 tectonic
earthquake occurred N of Lake
Tanganika, which was followed by
several aftershocks. GVO noted that
this activity reinforces the likelihood
of an eruption in the near future, but
volcanic activity would not pose a
threat to inhabited areas. The Alert
Level for the nearby city of Goma
remained at Yellow.
Source: Goma Volcano Observatory -

Dabbahu, Ethiopia
Volcanic activity at Erta Ale

discussed in the 5-11 October 2005
Weekly Volcanic Activity Report
actually occurred at Dabbahu. The
correct report is below. A team of
scientists visited the Da'Ure locality
immediately adjacent to the NE flank
of the Quaternary Dabbahu (or Boina) 12.6N,
felsic complex on 4 and 5 October October 18, 40.48E
2004
after receiving reports of volcanic 2005
activity there on 26 September.
People in the area noted that on 26
September at about 1300 a very
strong earthquake shook the area, and
was followed by a dark column of
"smoke" that rose high into the
atmosphere and spread out to form a
cloud, which darkened the area for 3
days and 3 nights. The scientists
determined that a minor explosive
eruption occurred from two semi-
circular vents, producing ashfall that
was ~5 cm thick near the vent. Ash
deposits extended more than 500 m
from the vent. Boulders emitted
during the eruption were as large as 3
m and were deposited as far as 20
meters away. The scientists noted
intense degassing from the vents, the
scent of sulfur dioxide, and the sound
of boiling water in the vents. As of
about 10 October, the Addis Ababa
University Geophysical Observatory
reported that seismic activity in the
area was continuing.
Sources: Gezahegn Yirgu,

Department of Earth Sciences, Addis
Ababa University - "Report provided
Program."
Erebus, Ross Island, Antarctica
According to the Mt. Erebus activity

log, several "small- to medium-sized"
eruptions occurred during 12-18
October, with a "very large" eruption
occurring on 14 October. The
77.53S,
eruption sizes were based on
October 18, 167.17E
comparisons of seismic data for 2005
2005
known Erebus eruptions.
Source: Mount Erebus Volcano

Observatory - "Report provided
Program."
Mount Michael, Saunders Island,
57.78S,
South Sandwich Islands
October 18, 26.45W
2003
2005
The first MODVOLC alerts at Mount
Michael since May 2003 recently
began, indicating an increased level
of activity in the island's summit
crater (and presumed lava lake). The
alerts occurred on 3, 5, and 6
October.
Sources: Hawai'i Institute of

Thermal Alerts Team and John
Smellie of the British Antarctic
Survey - "Report provided courtesy
Program."
Stromboli, Italy
A plume emitted from Stromboli that

may have contained ash was visible
on satellite imagery on 14 October at
38.79N,
a height around 1.8-2.4 km (6,000-
15.21E
8,000 ft) a.s.l. The plume extended
October 18,
~10 km NW of the volcano. 2005
2005
Source: Toulouse Volcanic Ash
WEB CAM
Program."
Cayambe, Ecuador
A cluster of earthquakes that had

been recorded at Cayambe since 16
September, with about 300 small
earthquakes occurring during 16-18
0.029 N
September, decreased in number
October 04, 77.986 W
significantly after 19 September. 1786
2005
During 19-25 September, an average
of 5.3 earthquakes occurred daily.

Cotopaxi, Ecuador
During 29 August to 4 September, the

number of long-period and hybrid
earthquakes at Cotopaxi decreased
slightly, and the number of volcano-
tectonic earthquakes increased, in
comparison to the previous week. No 00.677S,
changes in deformation were September 13, 78.436W
1940
recorded, and no surficial changes 2005
were seen at the volcano.

Chiginagak, Alaska
AVO reported that a 400-m-wide

"melt-water lake" formed in the
snow-and-ice filled summit crater of
Chiginagak sometime after the
previous observation in August 2004.
Earlier this summer, the southern
crater rim of Chiginagak was
breached, allowing a portion of the
lake to drain. The resulting lahar left
57.13N,
a deposit on a glacier draining the
August 30, 157.00W
crater to the S and caused flooding of 1998
2005
1-2 m above normal at Indecision
Creek. The breach in the crater rim
and the ensuing lahar probably
occurred in July 2005; there were
reports from a nearby lodge at this
time of strong sulfur smells and
cloudy, yellowish water in the
Indecision Creek drainage. There
were no indications that an eruption is
imminent or that this event is
necessarily precursory to an eruption.
Chiginagak is not seismically
monitored, so AVO did not assign it a
Concern Color Code.

Mauna Loa, Hawai'i, USA
HVO reported on 21 August that

extension across Mauna Loa's summit
had resumed over the previous few
19.5N,
weeks after pausing for much of July.
155.6W
Seismicity remained at low levels at
August 23,
the volcano. 1984
2005
Source: US Geological Survey
WEB CAM
Pago, New Britain, Papua New
Guinea
Pago was quiet during 15-21 August,

with only steam emissions occurring
from the upper vents of the fissure
system. Seismicity was at low levels.
August 23,
2003
2005
Source: Rabaul Volcano Observatory
via the Darwin Volcanic Ash
Program."
• Most diamonds are used to make abrasives and drill bits.
• California has diamonds.
• Diamonds fall in two age groups: 3.3 billion years and 1.6-1.0 billion years. The
magmas that carry them to the surface can be much younger.
• The first diamond found in South Africa weighed 21 carats!
• Mining for diamonds in one pipe at Kimberley went to a depth of 3,500 feet
below the surface.
• Gold particles have formed from volcanic gases at Mount Erebus.
• The average person will use about 350 kg of zinc, 350 kg of lead and 650 kg of
copper during a lifetime.
• Our term for copper is based on the Latin name for the island of Cyprus-cuprum.
Mining is no longer economically important on the island.
• Armalcolite ((Mg, Fe)Ti2O5), a mineral named in honor of the Apollo 11
astronauts Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins and first identified in lunar samples,
has been found in the rocks at the Argyle diamond pipe. The mineral probably
formed in metasomatised mantle peridotite.
• Mining in Australia uses only 0.02% of the land, less than all the hotel car parks
in the country.
Volcanic and Geologic Terms
'A'a: Hawaiian word used to describe a lava flow whose surface is broken into rough
angular fragments. Click here to view a photo of 'a'a.
Accessory: A mineral whose presence in a rock is not essential to the proper

classification of the rock.
Accidental: Pyroclastic rocks that are formed from fragments of non-volcanic rocks or
from volcanic rocks not related to the erupting volcano.
Accretionary Lava Ball: A rounded mass, ranging in diameter from a few centimeters to
several meters, [carried] on the surface of a lava flow (e.g., 'a'a) or on cinder-cone slopes
[and formed] by the molding of viscous lava around a core of already solidified lava.
Acid: A descriptive term applied to igneous rocks with more than 60% silica (SiO2).
Active Volcano: A volcano that is erupting. Also, a volcano that is not presently
erupting, but that has erupted within historical time and is considered likely to do so in
the future.
Agglutinate: A pyroclastic deposit consisting of an accumulation of originally plastic

ejecta and formed by the coherence of the fragments upon solidification.
Alkalic: Rocks which contain above average amounts of sodium and/or potassium for the
group of rocks for which it belongs. For example, the basalts of the capping stage of
Hawaiian volcanoes are alkalic. They contain more sodium and/or potassium than the
shield-building basalts that make the bulk of the volcano.
Andesite: Volcanic rock (or lava) characteristically medium dark in color and containing
54 to 62 percent silica and moderate amounts of iron and magnesium.
Ash: Fine particles of pulverized rock blown from an explosion vent. Measuring less than
1/10 inch in diameter, ash may be either solid or molten when first erupted. By far the
most common variety is vitric ash (glassy particles formed by gas bubbles bursting
through liquid magma).
Ashfall (Airfall): Volcanic ash that has fallen through the air from an eruption cloud. A
deposit so formed is usually well sorted and layered.
Ash Flow: A turbulent mixture of gas and rock fragments, most of which are ash-sized
particles, ejected violently from a crater or fissure. The mass of pyroclastics is normally
of very high temperature and moves rapidly down the slopes or even along a level
surface.
Asthenosphere: The shell within the earth, some tens of kilometers below the surface
and of undefined thickness, which is a shell of weakness where plastic movements take
place to permit pressure adjustments.
Aquifer: A body of rock that contains significant quantities of water that can be tapped
by wells or springs.
Avalanche: A large mass of material or mixtures of material falling or sliding rapidly

under the force of gravity. Avalanches often are classified by their content, such as snow,
ice, soil, or rock avalanches. A mixture of these materials is a debris avalanche.
Basalt: Volcanic rock (or lava) that characteristically is dark in color, contains 45% to
54% silica, and generally is rich in iron and magnesium.
Basement: The undifferentiated rocks that underlie the rocks of interest in an area.
Basic: A descriptive term applied to igneous rocks (basalt and gabbro) with silica (SiO2)
between 44% and 52%.
Bench: The unstable, newly-formed front of a lava delta.
Blister: A swelling of the crust of a lava flow formed by the puffing-up of gas or vapor
beneath the flow. Blisters are about 1 meter in diameter and hollow.
Block: Angular chunk of solid rock ejected during an eruption.
Bomb: Fragment of molten or semi-molten rock, 2 1/2 inches to many feet in diameter,
which is blown out during an eruption. Because of their plastic condition, bombs are
often modified in shape during their flight or upon impact.
Caldera: The Spanish word for cauldron, a basin-shaped volcanic depression; by

definition, at least a mile in diameter. Such large depressions are typically formed by the
subsidence of volcanoes. Crater Lake occupies the best-known caldera in the Cascades.
Capping Stage: Refers to a stage in the evolution of a typical Hawaiian volcano during
which alkalic, basalt, and related rocks build a steeply, sloping cap on the main shield of
the volcano. Eruptions are less frequent, but more explosive. The summit caldera may be
buried.
Central Vent: A central vent is an opening at the Earth's surface of a volcanic conduit of
cylindrical or pipe-like form.
Central Volcano: A volcano constructed by the ejection of debris and lava flows from a
central point, forming a more or less symmetrical volcano.
Cinder Cone: A volcanic cone built entirely of loose fragmented material (pyroclastics.)
Cirque: A steep-walled horseshoe-shaped recess high on a mountain that is formed by
glacial erosion.
Cleavage: The breaking of a mineral along crystallographic planes, that reflects a crystal
structure.
Composite Volcano: A steep volcanic cone built by both lava flows and pyroclastic
eruptions.
Compound Volcano: A volcano that consists of a complex of two or more vents, or a

volcano that has an associated volcanic dome, either in its crater or on its flanks.
Examples are Vesuvius and Mont Pelee.
Compression Waves: Earthquake waves that move like a slinky. As the wave moves to
the left, for example, it expands and compresses in the same direction as it moves. Usage
of compression waves.
Conduit: A passage followed by magma in a volcano.
Continental Crust: Solid, outer layers of the earth, including the rocks of the continents.
Usage of continental crust.
Continental Drift: The theory that horizontal movement of the earth's surface causes
slow, relative movements of the continents toward or away from one another.
Country Rocks: The rock intruded by and surrounding an igneous intrusion.
Crater: A steep-sided, usually circular depression formed by either explosion or collapse

at a volcanic vent.
Craton: A part of the earth's crust that has attained stability and has been little deformed
for a prolonged period.
Curtain of Fire: A row of coalescing lava fountains along a fissure; a typical feature of a
Hawaiian-type eruption.
Dacite: Volcanic rock (or lava) that characteristically is light in color and contains 62%
to 69% silica and moderate a mounts of sodium and potassium.
Debris Avalanche: A rapid and unusually sudden sliding or flowage of unsorted masses
of rock and other material. As applied to the major avalanche involved in the eruption of
Mount St. Helens, a rapid mass movement that included fragmented cold and hot
volcanic rock, water, snow, glacier ice, trees, and some hot pyroclastic material. Most of
the May 18, 1980 deposits in the upper valley of the North Fork Toutle River and in the
vicinity of Spirit Lake are from the debris avalanche.
Debris Flow: A mixture of water-saturated rock debris that flows downslope under the
force of gravity (also called lahar or mudflow).
Detachment Plane: The surface along which a landslide disconnects from its original
position.
Devonian: A period of time in the Paleozoic Era that covered the time span between 400
and 345 million years.
Diatreme: A breccia filled volcanic pipe that was formed by a gaseous explosion.
Dike: A sheetlike body of igneous rock that cuts across layering or contacts in the rock
into which it intrudes.
Dome: A steep-sided mass of viscous (doughy) lava extruded from a volcanic vent (often
circular in plane view) and spiny, rounded, or flat on top. Its surface is often rough and
blocky as a result of fragmentation of the cooler, outer crust during growth of the dome.
Dormant Volcano: Literally, "sleeping." The term is used to describe a volcano which is
presently inactive but which may erupt again. Most of the major Cascade volcanoes are
believed to be dormant rather than extinct.
Drainage Basin: The area of land drained by a river system.
Echelon: Set of geologic features that are in an overlapping or a staggered arrangement

(e.g., faults). Each is relatively short, but collectively they form a linear zone in which the
strike of the individual features is oblique to that of the zone as a whole.
Ejecta: Material that is thrown out by a volcano, including pyroclastic material (tephra)
and lava bombs.
Episode: An episode is a volcanic event that is distinguished by its duration or style.
Eruption: The process by which solid, liquid, and gaseous materials are ejected into the
earth's atmosphere and onto the earth's surface by volcanic activity. Eruptions range from
the quiet overflow of liquid rock to the tremendously violent expulsion of pyroclastics.
Eruption Cloud: The column of gases, ash, and larger rock fragments rising from a
crater or other vent. If it is of sufficient volume and velocity, this gaseous column may
reach many miles into the stratosphere, where high winds will carry it long distances.
Eruptive Vent: The opening through which volcanic material is emitted.
Evacuate: Temporarily move people away from possible danger.

Extinct Volcano: A volcano that is not presently erupting and is not likely to do so for a
very long time in the future. Usage of extinct.
Extrusion: The emission of magmatic material at the earth's surface. Also, the structure
or form produced by the process (e.g., a lava flow, volcanic dome, or certain pyroclastic
rocks).
Fault: A crack or fracture in the earth's surface. Movement along the fault can cause
earthquakes or--in the process of mountain-building--can release underlying magma and
permit it to rise to the surface.
Fault Scarp A steep slope or cliff formed directly by movement along a fault and
representing the exposed surface of the fault before modification by erosion and
weathering.
Felsic: An igneous rock having abundant light-colored minerals.
Fire fountain: See also: lava fountain
Fissures: Elongated fractures or cracks on the slopes of a volcano. Fissure eruptions

typically produce liquid flows, but pyroclastics may also be ejected.
Flank Eruption: An eruption from the side of a volcano (in contrast to a summit
eruption.)
Fluvial: Produced by the action of of flowing water.
Formation: A body of rock identified by lithic characteristics and stratigraphic position

and is mappable at the earth's surface or traceable in the subsurface.
Fracture: The manner of breaking due to intense folding or faulting.
Fumarole: A vent or opening through which issue steam, hydrogen sulfide, or other
gases. The craters of many dormant volcanoes contain active fumaroles.
Geothermal Energy: Energy derived from the internal heat of the earth.
Geothermal Power: Power generated by using the heat energy of the earth.
Graben: An elongate crustal block that is relatively depressed (downdropped) between

two fault systems.
Guyot: A type of seamount that has a platform top. Named for a nineteenth-century
Swiss-American geologist.
Hardness: The resistance of a mineral to scratching.

Harmonic Tremor: A continuous release of seismic energy typically associated with the
underground movement of magma. It contrasts distinctly with the sudden release and
rapid decrease of seismic energy associated with the more common type of earthquake
caused by slippage along a fault.
Heat transfer: Movement of heat from one place to another.
Heterolithologic: Material is made up of a heterogeneous mix of different rock types.

Instead of being composed on one rock type, it is composed of fragments of many
different rocks.
Holocene: The time period from 10,000 years ago to the present. Also, the rocks and
deposits of that age.
Horizontal Blast: An explosive eruption in which the resultant cloud of hot ash and
other material moves laterally rather than upward.
Horst: A block of the earth's crust, generally long compared to its width, that has been
uplifted along faults relative to the rocks on either side.
Hot Spot: A volcanic center, 60 to 120 miles (100 to 200 km) across and persistent for at
least a few tens of million of years, that is thought to be the surface expression of a
persistent rising plume of hot mantle material. Hot spots are not linked to arcs and may
not be associated with ocean ridges.
Hot-spot Volcanoes: Volcanoes related to a persistent heat source in the mantle.
Hyaloclastite: A deposit formed by the flowing or intrusion of lava or magma into water,
ice, or water-saturated sediment and its consequent granulation or shattering into small
angular fragments.
Hydrothermal Reservoir: An underground zone of porous rock containing hot water.
Hypabyssal: A shallow intrusion of magma or the resulting solidified rock.
Hypocenter: The place on a buried fault where an earthquake occurs. Usage of

hypocenter.
Ignimbrite: The rock formed by the widespread deposition and consolidation of ash
flows and Nuees Ardentes. The term was originally applied only to densely welded
deposits but now includes non-welded deposits.
Intensity: A measure of the effects of an earthquake at a particular place. Intensity

depends not only on the magnitude of the earthquake, but also on the distance from the
epicenter and the local geology.
Intermediate: A descriptive term applied to igneous rocks that are transitional between
basic and acidic with silica (SiO2) between 54% and 65%.
Intrusion: The process of emplacement of magma in pre-existing rock. Also, the term
refers to igneous rock mass so formed within the surrounding rock.
Joint: A surface of fracture in a rock.
Juvenile: Pyroclastic material derived directly from magma reaching the surface.
Kipuka: An area surrounded by a lava flow.
Laccolith: A body of igneous rocks with a flat bottom and domed top. It is parallel to the
layers above and below it.
Lahar: A torrential flow of water-saturated volcanic debris down the slope of a volcano
in response to gravity. A type of mudflow. Usage of lahar. For a larger discussion on
lahars, click here.
Landsat: A series of unmanned satellites orbiting at about 706 km (438 miles) above the
surface of the earth. The satellites carry cameras similar to video cameras and take
images or pictures showing features as small as 30 m or 80 m wide, depending on which
camera is used. Usage of Landsat.
Lapilli: Literally, "little stones." Round to angular rock fragments, measuring 1/10 inch
to 2 1/2 inches in diameter, which may be ejected in either a solid or molten state.
Lava: Magma which has reached the surface through a volcanic eruption. The term is
most commonly applied to streams of liquid rock that flow from a crater or fissure. It also
refers to cooled and solidified rock.
Lava Dome: Mass of lava, created by many individual flows, that has built a dome-
shaped pile of lava.
Lava Flow: An outpouring of lava onto the land surface from a vent or fissure. Also, a
solidified tongue like or sheet-like body formed by outpouring lava.
Lava Fountain: A rhythmic vertical fountainlike eruption of lava.
Lava Lake (Pond): A lake of molten lava, usually basaltic, contained in a vent, crater, or
broad depression of a shield volcano.
Lava Shields: A shield volcano made of basaltic lava.
Lava Tube: A tunnel formed when the surface of a lava flow cools and solidifies while
the still-molten interior flows through and drains away.
Limu O Pele (Pele Seaweed): Delicate, translucent sheets of spatter filled with tiny glass
bubbles.
Lithic: Of or pertaining to stone.
Lithosphere: The rigid crust and uppermost mantle of the earth. Thickness is on the
order of 60 miles (100 km). Stronger than the underlying asthenosphere.
Luster: The reflection of light from the surface of a mineral.
Maar: A volcanic crater that is produced by an explosion in an area of low relief, is

generally more or less circular, and often contains a lake, pond, or marsh.
Mafic: An igneous composed chiefly of one or more dark-colored minerals.
Magma: Molten rock beneath the surface of the earth.
Magma Chamber: The subterranean cavity containing the gas-rich liquid magma which
feeds a volcano.
Magmatic: Pertaining to magma.
Magnitude: A numerical expression of the amount of energy released by an earthquake,

determined by measuring earthquake waves on standardized recording instruments
(seismographs.) The number scale for magnitudes is logarithmic rather than arithmetic.
Therefore, deflections on a seismograph for a magnitude 5 earthquake, for example, are
10 times greater than those for a magnitude 4 earthquake, 100 times greater than for a
magnitude 3 earthquake, and so on.
Mantle: The zone of the earth below the crust and above the core.
Matrix: The solid matter in which a fossil or crystal is embedded. Also, a binding
substance (e.g., cement in concrete).
Miocene: An epoch in Earth's history from about 24 to 5 million years ago. Also refers to
the rocks that formed in that epoch.
Moho: Also called the Mohorovicic discontinuity. The surface or discontinuity that
separates the crust from the mantle. The Moho is at a depth of 5-10 km beneath the ocean
floor and about 35 km below the continents (but down to 60 km below mountains).
Named for Andrija Mohorovicic, a Croatian seismologist.
Monogenetic: A volcano built by a single eruption.

Mudflow: A flowage of water-saturated earth material possessing a high degree of
fluidity during movement. A less-saturated flowing mass is often called a debris flow. A
mudflow originating on the flank of a volcano is properly called a lahar.
Myth: A fictional story to explain the origin of some person, place, or thing. Usage of
myth.
Nuees Ardentes: A French term applied to a highly heated mass of gas-charged ash
which is expelled with explosive force and moves hurricane speed down the
mountainside. Usage of Nuees Ardentes
Obsidian: A black or dark-colored volcanic glass, usually composed of rhyolite.
Oceanic Crust: The earth's crust where it underlies oceans. Usage of oceanic crust.
Pahoehoe: A Hawaiian term for lava with a smooth, billowy, or ropy surface. Click here
to view a photo of pahoehoe.
Pali: Hawaiian word for steep hills or cliffs.
Pele Hair: A natural spun glass formed by blowing-out during quiet fountaining of fluid
lava, cascading lava falls, or turbulent flows, sometimes in association with pele tears. A
single strand, with a diameter of less than half a millimeter, may be as long as two
meters.
Pele Tears: Small, solidified drops of volcanic glass behind which trail pendants of Pele
hair. They may be tear-shaped, spherical, or nearly cylindrical.
Peralkaline: Igneous rocks in which the molecular proportion of aluminum oxide is less
than that of sodium and potassium oxides combined.
Phenocryst: A conspicuous, usually large, crystal embedded in porphyritic igneous rock.
Phreatic Eruption (Explosion): An explosive volcanic eruption caused when water and
heated volcanic rocks interact to produce a violent expulsion of steam and pulverized
rocks. Magma is not involved.
Phreatomagmatic: An explosive volcanic eruption that results from the interaction of

surface or subsurface water and magma.
Pillow lava: Interconnected, sack-like bodies of lava formed underwater.
Pipe: A vertical conduit through the Earth's crust below a volcano, through which
magmatic materials have passed. Commonly filled with volcanic breccia and fragments
of older rock.
Pit Crater: A crater formed by sinking in of the surface, not primarily a vent for lava.
Plastic: Capable of being molded into any form, which is retained.
Plate Tectonics: The theory that the earth's crust is broken into about 10 fragments
(plates,) which move in relation to one another, shifting continents, forming new ocean
crust, and stimulating volcanic eruptions.
Pleistocene: A epoch in Earth history from about 2-5 million years to 10,000 years ago.
Also refers to the rocks and sediment deposited in that epoch.
Plinian Eruption: An explosive eruption in which a steady, turbulent stream of

fragmented magma and magmatic gases is released at a high velocity from a vent. Large
volumes of tephra and tall eruption columns are characteristic.
Plug: Solidified lava that fills the conduit of a volcano. It is usually more resistant to
erosion than the material making up the surrounding cone, and may remain standing as a
solitary pinnacle when the rest of the original structure has eroded away.
Plug Dome: The steep-sided, rounded mound formed when viscous lava wells up into a
crater and is too stiff to flow away. It piles up as a dome-shaped mass, often completely
filling the vent from which it emerged.
Pluton: A large igneous intrusion formed at great depth in the crust.
Polygenetic: Originating in various ways or from various sources.
Precambrian:All geologic time from the beginning of Earth history to 570 million years
ago. Also refers to the rocks that formed in that epoch.
Pumice: Light-colored, frothy volcanic rock, usually of dacite or rhyolite composition,

formed by the expansion of gas in erupting lava. Commonly seen as lumps or fragments
of pea-size and larger, but can also occur abundantly as ash-sized particles. Usage of
pumice.
Pyroclastic: Pertaining to fragmented (clastic) rock material formed by a volcanic

explosion or ejection from a volcanic vent.
Pyroclastic Flow: Lateral flowage of a turbulent mixture of hot gases and unsorted
pyroclastic material (volcanic fragments, crystals, ash, pumice, and glass shards) that can
move at high speed (50 to 100 miles an hour.) The term also can refer to the deposit so
formed.
Quaternary: The period of Earth's history from about 2 million years ago to the present;
also, the rocks and deposits of that age.
Relief: The vertical difference between the summit of a mountain and the adjacent valley
or plain.
Renewed Volcanism State: Refers to a state in the evolution of a typical Hawaiian

volcano during which --after a long period of quiescence--lava and tephra erupt
intermittently. Erosion and reef building continue.
Repose: The interval of time between volcanic eruptions.
Rhyodacite: An extrusive rock intermediate in composition between dacite and rhyolite.
Rhyolite: Volcanic rock (or lava) that characteristically is light in color, contains 69%
silica or more, and is rich in potassium and sodium.
Ridge, Oceanic: A major submarine mountain range.
Rift System: The oceanic ridges formed where tectonic plates are separating and a new
crust is being created; also, their on-land counterparts such as the East African Rift.
Rift Zone: A zone of volcanic features associated with underlying dikes. The location of
the rift is marked by cracks, faults, and vents.
Ring of Fire: The regions of mountain-building earthquakes and volcanoes which

surround the Pacific Ocean.
Scoria: A bomb-size (> 64 mm) pyroclast that is irregular in form and generally very
vesicular. It is usually heavier, darker, and more crystalline than pumice.
Seafloor Spreading: The mechanism by which new seafloor crust is created at oceanic
ridges and slowly spreads away as plates are separating.
Seamount: A submarine volcano.
Seismograph: An instrument that records seismic waves; that is, vibrations of the earth.
Seismologist: Scientists who study earthquake waves and what they tell us about the
inside of the Earth. Usage of seismologist.
Seismometer: An instrument that measures motion of the ground caused by earthquake

waves. Usage of seismometer.
Shearing: The motion of surfaces sliding past one another.
Shear Waves: Earthquake waves that move up and down as the wave itself moves. For
example, to the left. Usage of shear waves.
Shield Volcano: A gently sloping volcano in the shape of a flattened dome and built
almost exclusively of lava flows.
Shoshonite: A trachyandesite composed of olivine and augite phenocrysts in a

groundmass of labradorite with alkali feldspar rims, olivine, augite, a small amount of
leucite, and some dark-colored glass. Its name is derived from the Shoshone River,
Wyoming and given by Iddings in 1895.
Silica: A chemical combination of silicon and oxygen.
Sill: A tabular body of intrusive igneous rock, parallel to the layering of the rocks into
which it intrudes.
Skylight: An opening formed by a collapse in the roof of a lava tube.
Solfatara: A type of fumarole, the gases of which are characteristically sulfurous.
Spatter Cone: A low, steep-sided cone of spatter built up on a fissure or vent. It is

usually of basaltic material.
Spatter Rampart: A ridge of congealed pyroclastic material (usually basaltic) built up

on a fissure or vent.
Specific Gravity: The density of a mineral divided by the density of water.
Spines: Horn-like projections formed upon a lava dome.
Stalactite: A cone shaped deposit of minerals hanging from the roof of a cavern.
Stratigraphic: The study of rock strata, especially of their distribution, deposition, and
age.
Stratovolcano: A volcano composed of both lava flows and pyroclastic material.
Streak: The color of a mineral in the powdered form.
Strike-Slip Fault: A nearly vertical fault with side-slipping displacement.
Strombolian Eruption: A type of volcanic eruption characterized by jetting of clots or

fountains of fluid basaltic lava from a central crater.
Subduction Zone: The zone of convergence of two tectonic plates, one of which usually
overrides the other.
Surge: A ring-shaped cloud of gas and suspended solid debris that moves radially
outward at high velocity as a density flow from the base of a vertical eruption column
accompanying a volcanic eruption or crater formation.
Talus: A slope formed a the base of a steeper slope, made of fallen and disintegrated
materials.
Tephra: Materials of all types and sizes that are erupted from a crater or volcanic vent
and deposited from the air.
Tephrochronology: The collection, preparation, petrographic description, and

approximate dating of tephra.
Tilt: The angle between the slope of a part of a volcano and some reference. The
reference may be the slope of the volcano at some previous time.
Trachyandesite: An extrusive rock intermediate in composition between trachyte and

andesite.
Trachybasalt: An extrusive rock intermediate in composition between trachyte and

basalt.
Trachyte: A group of fine-grained, generally porphyritic, extrusive igneous rocks having

alkali feldspar and minor mafic minerals as the main components, and possibly a small
amount of sodic plagioclase.
Tremor: Low amplitude, continuous earthquake activity often associated with magma
movement.
Tsunami: A great sea wave produced by a submarine earthquake, volcanic eruption, or

large landslide.
Tuff: Rock formed of pyroclastic material.
Tuff Cone: A type of volcanic cone formed by the interaction of basaltic magma and
water. Smaller and steeper than a tuff ring.
Tuff Ring: A wide, low-rimmed, well-bedded accumulation of hyalo-clastic debris built

around a volcanic vent located in a lake, coastal zone, marsh, or area of abundant ground
water.
Tumulus: A doming or small mound on the crest of a lava flow caused by pressure due
to the difference in the rate of flow between the cooler crust and the more fluid lava
below.
Ultramafic: Igneous rocks made mostly of the mafic minerals hypersthene, augite,
and/or olivine.
Unconformity: A substantial break or gap in the geologic record where a rock unit is
overlain by another that is not next in stratigraphic sucession, such as an interruption in
continuity of a depositional sequence of sedimentary rocks or a break between eroded
igneous rocks and younger sedimentary strata. It results from a change that caused
deposition to cease for a considerable time, and it normally implies uplift and erosion
with loss of the previous formed record.
Vent: The opening at the earth's surface through which volcanic materials issue forth.
Usage of vent.
Vesicle: A small air pocket or cavity formed in volcanic rock during solidification.
Viscosity: A measure of resistance to flow in a liquid (water has low viscosity while
honey has a higher viscosity.)
Volcano: A vent in the surface of the Earth through which magma and associated gases
and ash erupt; also, the form or structure (usually conical) that is produced by the ejected
material.
Volcanic Arc: A generally curved linear belt of volcanoes above a subduction zone, and
the volcanic and plutonic rocks formed there.
Volcanic Complex: A persistent volcanic vent area that has built a complex combination
of volcanic landforms.
Volcanic Cone: A mound of loose material that was ejected ballistically.
Volcanic Neck: A massive pillar of rock more resistant to erosion than the lavas and
pyroclastic rocks of a volcanic cone.
Vulcan: Roman god of fire and the forge after whom volcanoes are named.
Vulcanian: A type of eruption consisting of the explosive ejection of incandescent

fragments of new viscous lava, usually on the form of blocks.
Water Table: The surface between where the pore space in rock is filled with water and
where the the pore space in rock is filled with air.
Xenocrysts: A crystal that resembles a phenocryst in igneous rock, but is a foreign to the
body of rock in which it occurs.

Encyclopedia of Volcanos

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First Edition, 2007

ISBN 978 81 89940 54 6

© All rights reserved.

4. Volcanic Mineral Deposits

5. Current Volcanic Activity

6. Latest SI & USGS Reports

8. Volcanic and Geologic Terms

Columnar jointing forms in lava flows, sills, dikes, ignimbrites

Most columns tend to have 5 or 6 sides but have as few as 3 and as

1931 postcard of Devils Tower, Wyoming, a

Old Models for the Formation of Columnar Jointing:

• Giants Causeway, County Antrim, Northern Ireland

Lesser known examples:

Cool Facts about Columns:

Postcard of the Grand Causeway & Horizontal Pillars at Giants Causeway.

Postcard of Fingals Cave.

Volocano Bomb Pictures

Bread Crust Bombs

A core of basaltic scoria.

COW PIE BOMBS OR COW PAT BOMBS

Another explosion bomb about 4 inches

This fusiform bomb probably

Teardrop bombs have the classic

Rhyolite Caldera Complexes

World Supply of Aluminum

Uses for Diamonds

World Supply of Diamonds

Gold in Greenstone Belts

Gold in Porphyry Deposits

Gold in Epithermal Deposits

Lihir Island in Papua

Uses for Gold

World Supply of Gold

Core in komatiite lava with adcumulate texture.

Uses for Nickel:

World Supply of Nickel

There are three types of VMS deposits:

Zinc-Copper Lead-Zinc-Copper Copper-Pyrite

Uses for Copper, Lead, and Zinc

World Supply of Copper

Headwall of Fourpeaked Glacier, surface rilling, vapor plume

Fourpeaked Volcano, Alaska Peninsula, USA

AVO raised the Alert Level for

Sources: Alaska Volcano Observatory

PHIVOLCS announced the lowering

Source: Philippine Institute of

Based on reports from the Mexico

Sources: Kamchatkan Volcanic

The summit of Kilauea continued to

Sources: US Geological Survey

During 23-31 October, eruptive

Sources: Herman Patia, Rabaul

Based on satellite imagery, the

Sources: Herman Patia, Rabaul

Based on information from JMA, the

According to the Washington VAAC,

Source: Washington Volcanic Ash

Based on a pilot report, the Darwin

During 20-27 October, lava-dome

Based on information from the MVO,