Assignment # 1

Submitted by: Haleema Sadia

Submitted to: Masood -Ul- Hassan

Roll no: BZ655212

Course: M.Ed.

Course code: 831

Semester: Autumn 2019

Cell no: 0317-0063156

Allama Iqbal Open University

Islamabad
 Question #.1

Elaborate by giving examples the significance of Quran and Hadith as Islamic

foundations of education

Answer:

Introduction:

Islam has, from its inception, placed a high premium on education and has enjoyed a

long and rich intellectual tradition. Knowledge ('ilm) occupies a significant position

within Islam, as evidenced by the more than 800 references to it in Islam's most revered

book, the Koran. The importance of education is repeatedly emphasized in the Koran

with frequent injunctions, such as "God will exalt those of you who believe and those

who have knowledge to high degrees" (58:11), "O my Lord! Increase me in knowledge"

(20:114), and "As God has taught him, so let him write" (2:282). Such verses provide a

forceful stimulus for the Islamic community to strive for education and learning.

Islamic education is uniquely different from other types of educational theory and

practice largely because of the all-encompassing influence of the Koran. The Koran

serves as a comprehensive blueprint for both the individual and society and as the

primary source of knowledge. The advent of the Koran in the seventh century was quite

revolutionary for the predominantly illiterate Arabian society. Arab society had enjoyed

a rich oral tradition, but the Koran was considered the word of God and needed to be

organically interacted with by means of reading and reciting its words. Hence, reading

and writing for the purpose of accessing the full blessings of the Koran was an
aspiration for most Muslims. Thus, education in Islam unequivocally derived its origins

from a symbiotic relationship with religious instruction.

Background of Islamic Education:

Thus, in this way, Islamic education began. Pious and learned Muslims (mu'

allim or mudarris), dedicated to making the teachings of the Koran more accessible to the

Islamic community, taught the faithful in what came to be known as

the kuttāb (plural, katātīb). The kuttāb could be located in a variety of venues: mosques,

private homes, shops, tents, or even out in the open. Historians are uncertain as to when

the katātīb were first established, but with the widespread desire of the faithful to study

the Koran, katātīb could be found in virtually every part of the Islamic empire by the

middle of the eighth century. The kuttāb served a vital social function as the only vehicle

for formal public instruction for primary-age children and continued so until Western

models of education were introduced in the modern period. Even at present, it has

exhibited remarkable durability and continues to be an important means of religious

instruction in many Islamic countries.

The curriculum of the kuttāb was primarily directed to young male children, beginning

as early as age four, and was centered on Koranic studies and on religious obligations

such as ritual ablutions, fasting, and prayer. The focus during the early history of Islam

on the education of youth reflected the belief that raising children with correct

principles was a holy obligation for parents and society. As Abdul Tibawi wrote in
1972, the mind of the child was believed to be "like a white clean paper, once anything

is written on it, right or wrong, it will be difficult to erase it or superimpose new writing

upon it" (p. 38). The approach to teaching children was strict, and the conditions in

which young students learned could be quite harsh. Corporal punishment was often

used to correct laziness or imprecision. Memorization of the Koran was central to the

curriculum of the kuttāb, but little or no attempt was made to analyze and discuss the

meaning of the text. Once students had memorized the greater part of the Koran, they

could advance to higher stages of education, with increased complexity of instruction.

Western analysts of the kuttāb system usually criticize two areas of its pedagogy: the

limited range of subjects taught and the exclusive reliance on memorization. The

contemporary kuttāb system still emphasizes memorization and recitation as important

means of learning. The value placed on memorization during students' early religious

training directly influences their approaches to learning when they enter formal

education offered by the modern state. A common frustration of modern educators in

the Islamic world is that while their students can memorize copious volumes of notes

and textbook pages, they often lack competence in critical analysis and independent

thinking.

During the golden age of the Islamic empire (usually defined as a period between the

tenth and thirteenth centuries), when western Europe was intellectually backward and

stagnant, Islamic scholarship flourished with an impressive openness to the rational

sciences, art, and even literature. It was during this period that the Islamic world made

most of its contributions to the scientific and artistic world. Ironically, Islamic scholars
preserved much of the knowledge of the Greeks that had been prohibited by the

Christian world. Other outstanding contributions were made in areas of chemistry,

botany, physics, mineralogy, mathematics, and astronomy, as many Muslim thinkers

regarded scientific truths as tools for accessing religious truth.

Quran:

Holy Quran is the amazing book which is not written by any human, its author is God

(Allah) himself. It is the book of Islam which has been written in Arabic and was

reveled on the final Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). It is such a unique and wonderful

book that even after centuries, a single word of it has not changed. It is in its original

form even today. It is not an easy task to write about each and every characteristic of

Quran as no man can actually describe how wonderful and great this book is. But here

are a few verses of Holy Quran in which Allah himself has mentioned its characteristics.

It is the right guidance or way or course or direction or manner or mode or conduct for

the whole mankind (hudan lilnnas). It is clear and manifest as far as the guidance is

concerned (bayyinatin mina alhuda). It makes a separation or distinction between truth

and falsity (alfurqan). It has no discrepancies or contradictions. It has no crookedness,

deceit or deviation from rectitude. There is nothing in it that may cause any doubt,

suspicion, evil opinion, disquiet, disturbance, or agitation of mind (larayba feehi). It is

the Divine Prescript, Appointment, Ordinance, or Judgment that is explained in detail

making it clear, plain and manifest (tafseela alkitab). It guides to the way or course or

direction or manner or mode or conduct that is the most stable, even, straight, right and
direct. It puts forth examples of every manner or model [of conduct] so that people take

admonition and be mindful. The purpose of its revelation is not to cause hardship or

distress of any sort. These are only a few verses of Holy Quran which mention the

characteristics of Quran, there are so many other similar verses which discuss about the

Characteristics of Holy Quran. One can know about these characteristics by learning

and following Quran.

This Quranic way has distinction of connecting all disciplines of the mind with the

higher principles of the Islamic creed, morals, social and economic policy as well as

with legal practice. The system of the Islamic education is based upon the notation that

every discipline and branch of knowledge which is of benefit to society and necessary

and for it should be given attention by the Muslim community or Ummah as a whole in

order to educate or some of its members in those disciplines. This Book is the word of

Allah. He has revealed it to the seal of his prophet and quintessence of messengers as

guidance from him to mankind and pledged so to speak, to keep it instinct so that it

should remain the lighthouse of perennial and continuous Derive guidance for at the

successive generations after Prophet (S.A.W.). After the Prophet’s S.A.W death any new

revelation which had been the way of knowing the behest from heaven would never

come again hut the Book that had been vouchsafed heaven Muhammad Sallallahu

alaihi wassalam was preserved to keep the stream of revelation alive for all time. The

Quran is the same book for all Muslims. In order to maintain its positions in the

community we must insist upon unity of the purpose the faith and cultural integrity.

Such unity springs from the Quran and upon it depend the continued support for the
Quran as the fountain head of that unity. But we cannot maintain of educational

programmed in organization, in purpose and in basic structure.

Hadith:

Islam has two primary sources. First is the Quran which is the direct word of God

inspired to the Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him. The second source is the

Prophet’s teachings. These teachings include his words, actions, and things he

approved of. The Prophet’s teachings are called Sunna. The Sunna is found in texts

called hadith. A hadith is a statement of the Prophet peace be upon him which was

narrated by his companions and subsequently narrated to the next generation until

these sayings were compiled in hadith collections. The Prophet Muhammad, peace be

upon him, was sent as the final messenger to mankind. With his death, the message of

Islam was completed. The preservation of scripture is not limited to the text of the

Quran, but its meaning as well. If the Prophet’s explanation is needed in order to

understand the Quran, then it is necessary that his sayings be preserved as well, not

only the words of the Quran. In other words, without the Sunnah the Quran is not

preserved, what will only remain is the text without its meaning. Imagine for instance

trying to discover the manner of prayer based only the command to “establish prayer”

with few references to bowing and prostration. The number of prayers, times per day,

and what to recite would remain unknown. Therefore, the Sunna is part of the Quran’s

preservation. Without the Sunna the meaning of the Quran would be lost and by

extension not preserved. All Muslims, be they Sunni or Shia, agree that hadiths are

essential to understanding Islam. Hadith are important because without them the
Quran does not make sense. They provide a context to the verses in the Quran. The

Quran is a rather concise book and therefore contains many general statements. For

instance, the Quran commands Muslims to pray, but it does not provide the details of

how one is to perform prayer.

The Quran also commands Muslims to perform pilgrimage and give charity, but it does

not provide the details. These details are found in the hadith where the Prophet peace

be upon him explained the details and mechanics of prayer. There are dozens of verses

in the Quran that command Muslims to follow the Prophet. Without knowing his

teachings one cannot possibly fulfill this command. Hazrat Muhammad (SAW) is the

last prophet of Almighty Allah. He (SAW) was sent for all mankind as a mercy. Quran

is the divine Book of Almighty Allah and sent to Prophet Muhammad (SAW) so that He

teaches Muslims what Allah has said in Quran. We should not take help from one

source only rather we have to combine both the Wisdom of Quran-e-Kareem and

Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW) of Allah together in order to benefit from them more

effectively. The two fundamental sources of Islam are the Quran and the Sunnah of the

Prophet (SAW). By Sunnah, we mean the actions, sayings and silent permissions (or

disapproval) of the Prophet (SAW). Hadith is considered to be second to the Quran. It is

impossible to understand the Quran without reference to the Hadith, and it is

impossible to explain a Hadith without relating it to the Quran. So we should

understand both Quran and Hadith in order to get benefits.

Question #.2
Differentiate between Idealism and realism and also describe the similarities between

progressivism and pragmatism.

Answer:

Idealism:

Idealism is a term with a few related implications. It comes through thought from the

Greek idein, signifying "to see". The term entered the English language by 1743. In

customary use, as when talking about Woodrow Wilson's political vision, it for the most

part proposes the need of beliefs, standards, qualities, and objectives over solid real

factors. Idealism are comprehended to speak to the world as it would or ought to be,

not normal for practical people, who center around the world as it by and by seems to

be. In expressions of the human experience, comparatively, vision avows creative mind

and endeavors to understand a psychological origination of excellence, a standard of

flawlessness, compared to tasteful naturalism and authenticity. Any way of thinking

that allocates pivotal significance to the perfect or profound domain in its record of

human presence might be named "optimist". Powerful optimism is an ontological

convention that holds that reality itself is spiritual or experiential at its center. Past this,

visionaries differ on which parts of the psychological are increasingly fundamental.

Dispassionate optimism asserts that deliberations are more essential to reality than the

things we see, while emotional romantics and marvels records will in general benefit

tangible experience over theoretical thinking. Epistemological optimism is the view that

reality must be known through thoughts, that solitary mental experience can be

captured by the psyche. Emotional idealists like George Berkeley are enemies of
pragmatists as far as a psyche autonomous world, while supernatural optimists like

Immanuel Kant are solid doubters of such a world, insisting epistemological and not

otherworldly vision. In this way Kant characterizes vision as "the statement that we can

never be sure whether the entirety of our putative external experience isn't minor

envisioning". He guaranteed that, as indicated by vision, "the truth of outer items

doesn't concede to severe confirmation. Despite what might be expected, be that as it

may, the truth of the object of our inside feeling (of myself and state) is clear quickly

through cognizance". Be that as it may, not all optimists limit the genuine or the

understandable to our prompt abstract understanding. Target optimists make

guarantees about a Tran’s observational world, however basically deny that this world

is basically separated from or ontologically before the psychological. Hence, Plato and

Gottfried Leibniz attest a target and understandable reality rising above our emotional

mindfulness a dismissal of epistemological optimism however recommend that this the

truth is grounded in perfect elements, a type of powerful vision. Nor do every single

magical romantic concur on the idea of the perfect; for Plato, the basic elements were

non-mental dynamic structures, while for Leibniz they were proto-mental and solid

monads. Generally speaking, supernatural romantics like Kant attest optimism's

epistemic side without conceding to whether the truth is at last mental; target

visionaries like Plato avow reality's powerful premise in the psychological or theoretical

without confining their epistemology to customary experience; and emotional dreamers

like Berkeley confirm both mystical and epistemological idealism.

Realism:
Realism has dominated the academic study of international relations since the end

of World War II. Realists claim to offer both the most accurate explanation of state

behavior and a set of policy prescriptions (notably the balance of power between states)

for ameliorating the inherent destabilizing elements of international affairs. Realism

(including neorealism) focuses on abiding patterns of interaction in an international

system lacking a centralized political authority. That condition of anarchy means that

the logic of international politics often differs from that of domestic politics, which is

regulated by a sovereign power. Realists are generally pessimistic about the possibility

of radical systemic reform. Realism is a broad tradition of thought that comprises a

variety of different strands, the most distinctive of which are classical realism and

neorealism. Realists frequently claim to draw on an ancient tradition of political

thought. Among classic authors often cited by realists are Thucydides, Niccolò

Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Max Weber. Realism as a

self-conscious movement in the study of international relations emerged during the

mid-20th century and was inspired by the British political scientist and historian E.H.

Carr. Carr attacked what he perceived as the dangerous and deluded “idealism” of

liberal internationalists and, in particular, their belief in the possibility of progress

through the construction of international institutions, such as the League of Nations. He

focused instead on the perennial role of power and self-interest in determining state

behaviour. The outbreak of World War II converted many scholars to that pessimistic

vision. Thereafter, realism became established in American political

science departments, its fortunes boosted by a number of émigré European scholars,

the realism of Carr, Morgenthau, and their followers that is labeled classical.

Difference between Idealism and Realism:

Idealism and realism can be understood as two different perspectives. Some of the key

differences between them include:

1. Idealism causes you to see things in a very hopeful manner, shaping situations with

your own ideas. Realism, on the other hand, causes one to assess a situation as it is,

without overt emotional involvement.

2. Idealists tend to be more positive when compared to realists, in how they perceive

things and carry out tasks.

3. When making decisions, realists are more goal oriented and thorough than idealists,

who may have lofty ambitions, but lack the clarity and focus to put them into action in

an achievable way.

Progressivism:

Progressivisms believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on

the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should

test ideas by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that

arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem

solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her individual experience in the
physical and cultural context. Effective teachers provide experiences so that students

can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived from student interests and questions.

The scientific method is used by progressivism educators so that students can study

matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one

comes to know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from

the mid-1920s through the mid-1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One of

his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through

experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of

teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather

than authority.

Pragmatism:

Pragmatism means action, from which the words practical and practice have come. The

idealist constructs a transcendental ideal, which cannot be realized by man. The

pragmatist lays down standards which are attainable. Pragmatists are practical people.

They face problems and try to solve them from practical point of view. Unlike idealists

they live in the world of realities, not in the world of ideals. Pragmatists view life as it

is, while idealists view life as it should be. The central theme of pragmatism is activity.

Question #.3

Why the mastery over psychological foundations of education is necessary to become

an effective teacher?

Answer:
Background:

Imagine we are a newly employed assistant professor at a school of education or

teacher educating university and you are asked to give a lecture in educational

psychology or, more specifically, on psychological aspects of learning in the classroom.

To develop our syllabus, we may consult different sources: standards that are part of

some certification process either for individual teacher candidates or for teacher

education programs in general; textbooks that either cover educational psychology as a

broad science or are more focused on learning; or, finally, some of your colleagues‟ pre-

existing syllabi. we will surely be confronted with an overwhelming amount of content

which might be more or less detailed, and sooner or later you may very likely come to

the conclusion that you cannot know for sure whether your agenda covers the essential

content teacher candidates should acquire in order to successfully manage their daily

work (i.e., fostering learning in their students).

Reviews on the history of educational psychology clearly highlight its close connection

to psychology as the mother science. Stanley Hall a student of William James who

founded psychology in the USA at Harvard College collected data for his Ph.D. on

pupils with the help of teachers and later founded the American Psychological

Association (APA). Edward Thorndike, another of James‟ students, transferred the

research on learning from the classroom to the laboratory and later became APA

president. However, educational psychology returned to its origins and has developed

over the last century from a science mostly located in laboratories to a science located

more and more in practical settings. Therefore, we refer to O'Donnell and Levin (2001)
who define educational psychology as “the development and application of

psychological principles to education, as well as the adoption of psychological

perspectives Aspects of educational psychology relevant to teachers.

Thinking about learning and teaching, general aspects like individual differences,

development, the nature of the subject being taught, problem solving, assessment, and

transfer often come to mind. However, in order to define the important aspects of

educational psychology for prospective teachers that enable them to properly teach and

support students at school, one may consider different sources: scientific articles

textbooks for teacher’s interviews with practicing teachers or standards for licensing

individual teachers (e.g., Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium)

and teacher education programs in general. Educational psychology has the potential to

provide relevant knowledge for the professional training of teacher candidates. In most

European countries it is part of the minimal requirements. However, due to the relative

autonomy of universities concerning teacher education both across and within

countries, credit hours defining the amount of time devoted to professional training in

general and to psychology in particular also vary across and within countries. As an

example, conducted a curriculum analysis and showed a high variability of credit

points even within one single federal state in Germany. Furthermore, universities not

only differ concerning credit point distribution but also concerning content-related

aspects.

Educational psychology is the applied branch of psychology and is the combination of

education and psychology. The psychological principles, laws and techniques are
applied to the development of educational strategies, teaching-learning situations,

results/findings are applied in the field of education and it is concerned with the

scientific study of human learning, including both cognitive and behavioral aspects.

According to Skinner “educational psychology is the branch of psychology which deals

with teaching and learning”. It is a scientific in approach that uses psychological

constructs and tools to understand the various characteristics of learners, teachers,

learning tasks, learning environment and educational settings interacting to modify or

change behaviors of learners in school settings. According to Peel “educational

psychology helps the teacher to understand the development of his pupils, the range

and limits of their capacities, the process by which they learn and their social

relationships”. It provides information about the many factors that affect teaching

learning and offers useful and tested ideas for improving instruction. It is educational

psychology which makes teachers effective. Give positive verbal/non verbal

reinforcement and corrective feedback to the learners. Communicate to students about

expectations. Educational psychology is the scientific study of human behavior in

educational situation and concerned with the factors, principles, concepts, methods and

techniques which relates to the various aspects of learners‟ growth and development. It

is concerned with learning environment and process by which learning can be more

active, joyful and effective. It is a science of education dealing with how, when and

what of education.

Educators could watch themselves and their own behavior to become self-aware of new

understandings about motivation. Ames (1990) showed that motivation as an outcome

healthy if it is managed or directed effectively. To resolve conflict permanently the

teachers must address the cause of conflict and not the just symptoms of it. Jones (2004)

explored that conflict resolution education provides critical life skills necessary for

building constructive relationships and developing safe environment in schools.

Kember and Leung (2006) revealed that teaching-learning environment can motivate

learners to work hard without feeling stressed. Blake and Pope (2008) incorporated

Piaget‟s and Vygotsky‟s theories into teaching strategies in elementary classroom.

Findings showed that students‟ learning is likely to increase. The use of both theories in

classrooms is advantageous. Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan and Willingham (2013)

investigated easy to use learning techniques developed by cognitive and educational

psychologists that could help students to achieve their learning goals. Educational

psychology has contributed considerably in the creation of teaching learning

environment. It helps the teacher in the following ways:

Stages of Development:

As we know that human life passes through different stages of development before it

reaches adulthood. They are: infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Each

stage has its own characteristics. Psychologists have thoroughly studied the

characteristic behavior patterns of these different stages of life. Identification of these

stages with different sets of characteristics, attributes and features regards physical,

mental and emotional development greatly help educationists to design curriculum and

determine appropriate methods of teaching-learning for learning at different stages. It is

One aspect of direction of growth should not be developed at the cost of others. There

should be perfect harmony and balance between the different stages of growth.

Knowledge of conflict management help teachers in providing effective instruction

according to developmental stages is helpful to mould behavior of learners.

Know Your Learner:

Psychologists are concerned to establish the behavior pattern of human behavior so that

they are able to know, predict and modify. Learner is central in the teaching learning

process. Educational psychology helps the teacher to know about learning capacity,

interest, attitudes, aptitudes, creativity, intelligence, covert-overt behavior, motivation

and the other acquired or innate capacities and abilities of the learners. It also helps to

know the stages of development linked with social, emotional, intellectual, physical,

mental and aesthetic needs, to know level of aspiration, conscious and unconscious

behavior, individual and group behavior, conflicts, desires and other aspects mental

health and hygiene. In this way guidance can be provided and positive attitude towards

the learner on the part of the teacher can be developed.

Dealing with Diverse Learners:

Educational Psychology helps the teacher to adapt and adjust his teaching according to

the level and need of the diverse learners. For effective teaching-learning the teacher

must have the knowledge of the various approaches, methods, principles, laws and

factors affecting it. Then only he/she can apply diagnostic and remedial measures in
the teaching-learning situation. Conducive teaching-learning environment can be

achieved in this way.

Knowledge of Individual Differences:

No two persons are exactly alike. Learners differ in their level of intelligence, aptitudes,

attitude, interest, creativity etc. There are gifted, under achievers, slow learners,

backward, differently able learners. Thus, educational psychology helps the teacher to

know the individual differences among the learners in the class and the procedures

accordingly, methodology and techniques can be adopted for them to deal with

differences.

Dealing with Special Needs Learners:

Special education means instructions that are specially designed to meet the unique

needs of learners or the special needs children. The special needs children are the ones

who need adapted teaching instructions, adapted learning environment or adapted

learning process. They may be physically differently able or children with delinquency

(juvenile delinquent). These children are identified and help teachers in selecting

pedagogy which is suitable for them. Educational psychology helps these learners by

providing educational services to these.

Question #.4

Explain the role of teacher in the cognitive development of students.

Cognitive development:

Cognitive development refers to the student’s understanding of concepts and the ability

to think and reason. While language stimulates cognitive development, language

sophistication influences cognitive abilities. The ability to interact with others while

using language helps students develop cognitive skills. Students who are deaf or hard

of hearing have the same capability for cognitive development as do students with

normal hearing. The educational interpreter plays a vital role in a student’s cognitive

development. Most interpreters are able to use language to communicate concepts that

are simple or often used. However, a skilled educational interpreter must not only

understand the concept of cognitive development, he or she must also be able to handle

the complex task of using language to communicate concepts that are new, abstract or

difficult.

Core Standards:

The following core standards were used by EIPA Diagnostic Center experts to develop

EIPA Written test questions regarding cognitive development:

 A Piagetian approach to cognitive development assumes that cognitive

development is independent from language development.

 Information enters the mind to stimulate cognitive development through

perception of sound, visual information, speech, and touch.

is important, how we approach new tasks, how we interact.

 Socialization is an important aspect of cognitive development.

 Play has an important role in cognitive development.

 Teacher’s questions can require different levels of abstraction in terms of

cognitive skills.  Taxonomy:  Demonstration of knowledge; Comprehension;

Application; Analysis; Synthesis; Evaluation.

 Organizing a text spatially may help a student organize the text cognitively.

 Cognitive organization helps students store and remember concepts.  Providing

students with repetition allows them to see patterns, parallels, comparisons, and

similarities, which all help them learn.

 In terms of cognitive development, students learn when there is a conflict

between what they think and new information that they receive. Often this

causes the student to accommodate, or to modify a cognitive scheme, based on

new information.

 A cognitive scheme is a cognitive structure that organizes information, making

sense of experience. Students develop schemes in many different domains:

motor, language, thinking, social, etc.

 Students interpret the world and experiences in terms of their cognitive schemes,

which have been developed based on previous experiences.

Conceptualization:
  Students often need support to learn new concepts in terms of contextualization,

breaking down concepts, etc. Effective support can include practice, repetition,

and experience which aide in generalizing a concept. 

 A student’s ability to repeat a concept does not mean the student understands it.

Students can memorize language without understanding what it really means. 

When a student can answer questions spontaneously about the concept, or can

show that he understands, there is better evidence that the student has learned.

 Understanding a concept and being able to talk about a concept are not the same.

Being able to talk about a concept often helps a student understand it.

Learning:

 The goal of education is for students to acquire thinking skills, not to just

memorize facts.

 Students are like little scientists, trying to explore and figure out how the world

works based on what they see, do, and hear.

 Students learn a great deal from exploration, making mistakes, and self-

correction.

 Behavioral approaches to learning propose that positive behavior can be

increased by the use of positive re-enforcers. Negative behavior can be decreased

by the use of punishment or withdrawal of privileges. Strict behaviorism does

not recognize the active cognitive construction on the part of the student.
 Question #. 5

Write notes on the following

i. Social conditions and education

ii. Economic conditions and education

Answer.

Social conditions and education:

Increasingly in the 1960s and 1970s it has become difficult to recognize educational

orthodoxy, to know what is progressive, to identify what is radical. In matters of school

provision, what is taught, when and how, there has been endless controversy,

experiment, disillusion, and abandonment of the field to whatever and whoever

happens at the moment to have the largest visible amount of confidence? Going

forward has come to be interpreted as going backward, or nowhere. Discussions of

higher education become trapped in what higher education is, with decreasing certainty

as to what it might be. Plans for action diversify until the central theme becomes the

reasons for inaction. Locating the issues in a historical discussion is not an evasion of

the issues: it is an attempt to find out if the issues exist. If my concerns with

contemporary education lead me into its recent history, this is not to say that there is a

history that tells all, one inescapable sequence of historical explanations. Historically

and in the present we achieve our best possible approximations: what stands as the
predominant account of our present or our past does so by virtue of the sophistication

of its message, or the authority of its author, or the power of its sponsors, or the

accident of its inception – just occasionally by some consensus as to its truth. Such

confusions may tell us that something is wrong with our society, or with our ways of

making history or analysing our present – or both, or all. Education is one of many

social battlegrounds and an understanding of the battles can be arrived at from their

present or their past (or their intended future). History is written roughly in two ways.

It may attempt to elucidate the present by starting with the present, and tracing the

steps which seem to have led to the present events, or structure, or process, or to some

known end-point. Or it may start with the past – trying to picture their world, their

structures, their interpretations, and seeking some kind of contemporary message about

or from them. History which does neither may cease to be history: at one end it becomes

disembodied theory, at the other – a compendium, a depository of antiques.

The 'social condition', however vague it may be, seems a useful working concept for the

discussion of education in this book. Not the 'human condition' because this is not an

attempt at philosophical stock-taking. The theme cannot be described as the 'historical

condition', because the intention is not to encompass a long time-scale of historical

change, or the lack of it. The theme is social. Not the 'social context' – that ultra-

fashionable phrase – because it is too inert, as if education is surrounded by, framed by,

perhaps even affected by the big out-there, but is not in any serious kind of relationship

with it, in but not of it. Not 'education and society', because that implies more of a

theoretical commitment than is claimed here to explain how we relate to one another as
a social complexity, and how education is located in all of that. Not even 'education and

social change' – which, by repeating the title of Sir Fred Clarke's 1940 book, would have

implied too much that we are at the kind of significant moment that Clarke perceived

would follow the war, when things are expected to happen, and when education was

destined to play a major part in the happening. At the end of the 1970s that may, of

course, be the case, but it is not particularly obvious that it is. The 'social condition'

therefore offers the opportunity to emphasize the present and a manageable time-scale

of discussion, to ask what are some of the main features of the way we are together, and

what we still want or can expect of education. A 'condition' is something that it is

sensible to try to understand, and to wish to improve. It calls us to reflect on recent

experience, and to expose anxieties.

Economic condition and education:

It is conventional in many countries of the world to link the status of a family with the

family’s income, parents‟ educational level, parents‟ occupation and social status.

Many factors have been found to influence the educational outcome of children. Among

them, a parents‟ socio-economic status plays a significant impact. In other words, a

parent’s social class can help explain the relative educational outcome of children.

Status is measured as a combination of education, income and occupation.

Conceptually, it is the social standing or class of an individual or group. Consequently,

privilege, power, and control are emphasized when the status of an individual or group

is seen through the lens of society. The role of a parent’s circumstances economically

and socially in determining the educational outcome of their child cannot be

difficult it is to support a child’s educational development and vice versa.

A parent’s economic and social status can impact on their child’s educational outcome

in several ways. These include the impact on parental involvement in their child’s

academic activities, the ability to procure relevant educational materials, as well as the

nature and type of education given to the child. Even the nature and type of institution

to which the child is sent to receive education is positively correlated to parental socio-

economic standing. Many scholars hold the view that children from high and middle

socio-economic status parents are better exposed to a learning environment at home

because of the availability of extra learning facilities which are provided to aid the

learning of their children. In addition, well-educated parents ensure their children’s

future earning by providing them a better education. On the other hand, because

children from low socio-economic backgrounds lack access to extra learning facilities,

climbing the educational ladder may be fraught with a multitude of difficulties. The

implication of this is that children who come from low socio-economic status earn lower

test scores and have greater tendency to drop out of school than their counterparts from

high socio-economic status. One explanation given for the discrepancy between the

educational outcomes between children from high and low socioeconomic status is that

the latter are prevented from access to vital resources required by the students such as

textbooks, qualitative schools, computers and the like. This is in addition to low

socioeconomic backgrounds in which stress is created at home where parents

increasingly face difficulties in meeting the financial needs of the children. Economic
hardships induced by low socioeconomic status lead to parental disruptions, rising cost

of family conflicts, parental depression and greater probability of single parenthood, all

of which indicate the quality of home life in which the child is brought up. It has been

observed that children from low socioeconomic status households develop academic

skills more slowly, in comparison with those from higher socioeconomic status groups.

This is because initial academic skills are heavily linked with the home environment.

Thus where there is low literacy connected to parents‟ low academic level, it negatively

affects a child’s pre-academic skills. Studies are in support of the view that pupils from

households where parents‟ status is low acquire language skills more slowly as well as

display delayed letter recognition and phonological awareness. Children with higher

socio-economic backgrounds are more likely to be proficient on tasks of addition,

subtraction, ordinal sequencing, and math word problems than children with lower

socioeconomic status backgrounds.

Even the feelings associated with low socioeconomic status by students have been

found to be responsible for low educational outcomes. Thus students who identify

themselves as part of a lower class are associated with feelings of not belonging in

school and exhibit greater probability to drop out of school before graduation. The

conclusion is that that family economic stress and personal financial constraints affect

emotional distress and depression in their children, negatively impacting their

academic outcomes. It is imperative to stress that some children succeed in school

despite having parents whose socio-economic status is low. What is incontrovertible

however is that parental involvement as captured by a parent’s status which

outcomes of their children. Basically, socio-economic status is the term embracing the

totality of an individual’s standing in society as seen in such variables as occupation,

income and education. However, there is usually ambiguity in what constitutes socio-

economic status or even a class. In essence the concepts are seen on a relative basis.

Many debates have taken place regarding the place of student role performance in the

determination of students‟ academic outcomes. Student role performance is defined as

how well an individual or student fulfils the role expected in an educational setting.

Variables such as sex, race, school effort and distribution, extracurricular activities and

deviance, have been found to impact student role performance. The academic life of a

student has been shown to be influenced by race. Studies conducted in the United

States of America indicated that non-white minority students are at a disadvantage

academically and achieved below their white counterparts. Although research showed

that African-American students tend to invest less in school, leading to their relative

underperformance, it is suggested however that minority students have generally come

to expect discrimination through racial prejudice, believing that such negative

tendencies will undermine whatever efforts they exert to prove themselves

academically. This is in addition to the conclusion that lower investment in education is

not a function of inability but a direct response to discrimination which minority

students are subjected to in a white-dominated class.

School effort also plays crucial role in students‟ educational outcome, in terms of the

energy and time put in with a view to meeting the formal academic requirements as
established by a school or a teacher. Carbonaro (2005) identified three types of school

effort, namely rule-oriented effort, procedural effort and intellectual effort. Rule

oriented effort encompasses a student’s tendency to show up in class as well as put up

good behavior in the learning process. While procedural effort entails meeting specific

demands of the class such as doing and submitting a test within the prescribed time,

intellectual effort involves student’s critical thinking about the curriculum as well as its

understanding. School effort has been demonstrated to be a good indicator of

educational outcome, greater academic values and higher grade point average. The

school environment encompasses the structure, composition and climate of the school,

all of which set the parameters of a child’s learning experience two of the structural

components of a school are the sector in which it operates such as whether it is private

or public and class size. Crosnoe (2004) maintained that because of the relative better

investment in private schools, coupled with smaller class sizes and better learning

resources such as computers and functional laboratories and libraries, attending private

schools leads to better educational outcome than public schools. Intimacy is enhanced

in smaller class sizes in private schools, with the result that those who come from low

socio-economic backgrounds and consequently attend poorly funded schools with large

class sizes and ill-equipped structures perform less academically than their counterparts

from high socio-economic background.

From the foregoing, it can be seen that the type of school a child attends can influence

the child’s educational outcomes. Whether a child would be sent to a good, average or

low quality school would largely depend on their parents‟ ability to afford it. It was
found that socio-economic status variables continue to influence educational

attainment, even after controlling for different school types. Hence, the school context

tends to affect the strength of the relationship between socio-economic status and

educational outcomes. Majori banks observed that the home, being an important agent

of socialization is instrumental in the interest that a child forms in school, in addition to

the child’s future aspirations. Family background encompasses factors such as socio-

economic status of parents, family size, neighborhood, maternal characteristics, one-

parent versus two-parent households and divorce. Rumberger (1995) maintained that a

student’s family background is widely recognized as the most significant important

contributor to success in schools. Jacobs and Harvey (2005) established that many

variables in the family background have strong direct and indirect associations with

students‟ success throughout school up to occupational attainment. Such variables

include family structure, parent education level, parental involvement and parenting

style.