American Journal of Business

The Renaissance of Outdoor Advertising: From Harlem to Hong Kong

Tomas A. Lopez-Pumarejo Myles Bassell
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American Journal of Business, Vol. 24 Iss 2 pp. 33 - 40
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 The Renaissance of Outdoor Advertising:
From Harlem to Hong Kong

Tomas A. Lopez-Pumarejo, Brooklyn College, City University of New York

Myles Bassell, Brooklyn College, City University of New York

Abstract
This paper explores the reasons for the increase in “outdoor advertising” (OA) ex-
penditures worldwide and the impact of billboards on our cities. Since 2006, a por-
table device that measures billboard exposure became widely available, thus setting
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up a rating system like that of other forms of media. Additionally, high-resolution

digital printing and state-of-the-art electronic display units enabled a resurgence
in the popularity of billboards. Corinthian-pillared buildings, gothic archways,
monuments, and colossal skyscrapers once defined the architectural landscape of
our cities. Today outdoor advertising overpowers those landmark giants in the cit-
ies in which we live and work, as advertisers find it progressively more difficult to
reach people through other media. Gargantuan billboards and other manifesta-
tions of this industry make this metamorphosis possible in urban and rural areas,
from Harlem to Hong Kong.

Keywords: Billboards, Hong Kong, advertising, Harlem, technology, China

Introduction media, i.e. television and print; bill- More than ever before, outdoor ad-
The role of the media industry is boards, the oldest form of advertising, vertising has demonstrated the ability to
multi-faceted, but certainly one of the has experienced a steady and signifi- define our urban and rural landscapes.
most indispensable roles is to deliver cant rate of growth worldwide. The cities where we live and work have
advertising through a variety of me- Outdoor advertising growth re- undergone a metamorphosis that is a
dia vehicles to reach the target audi- sults from technological advances seen manifestation of outdoor advertising.
ence with a high enough frequency primarily on two fronts. First a rating The personality and identity of our cit-
that those exposed to the advertising measurement system for outdoor ad- ies is defined by a variety of outdoor
process the messaging. For decades vertising, launched in 2004, is widely advertising mediums, the most popular
advertisers have gained access to our available and provides reach and fre- and most prominent being billboards.
homes via radio, television, cable, print quency estimates. As a result, outdoor This is a global phenomenon that is as
media and the internet, in an effort to advertising is deemed much more ef- significant in Harlem as it is in Hong
expose us to messaging that ideally will fective, in terms of cost-per-thousand, Kong. In Hong Kong, all forms of out-
motivate us to purchase the advertiser’s than the other media. Secondly, im- door advertising are utilized heavily by
product or service and generate incre- provements in digital print and high advertisers and outdoor advertising is
mental revenue for the advertiser. As definition monitors have drastically the fastest growing form of media in
consumers become progressively more increased the quality, variety and flex- China. Figure 1 (Bassell 2006) illus-
difficult to reach through traditional ibility of outdoor advertising. trates the significant transformational

Authors’ note: We thank the Center for Twentieth Century Studies, University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee for financing the seminal re-
search with a fellowship for author Lopez-Pumarejo; journalist Kirk C. Nielsen for his editorial assistance and feedback about the case
of Miami; the Vidal Partnership and the Association of Hispanic Advertising Agencies for training author Lopez-Pumarejo in outdoor
advertising; photographer Dr. Charles Martin from Queens College, City University of New York, for his photography of billboards in
Harlem, and Dr. Charles E. Oliver, from the New School University, New York for his editorial comments.

Fall 2009 • Vol. 24, No. 2 33

 Lopez-Pumarejo and Bassell

Table 1 Figure 1
Expenditures on Outdoor Advertising in the United States Outdoor Advertising Defines
Hong Kong Street
Year 1990 to 2005 1995 to 2005 2000 to 2005
Expenditure ($ billions) 2.6 to 6.3 3.5 to 6.3 5.2 to 6.3
Change ($ billions) +3.7 +2.8 +1.1
Change (%) +142.0 +80.0 +21.0
Average Annual Change +9.46 +8.0 +4.2
*Average Annual Inflation +2.90 +2.50 +2.55

Source: Historical inflation data

impact of outdoor advertising on the The Growth of Outdoor

city of Hong Kong. Advertising Photography: Myles Bassell, Brooklyn
The impact of giant murals and Corinthian-pillared buildings, goth- College, City University of New York
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billboards stems from—among other ic archways, monuments, and colossal

things—our perceptual peculiarities as sky scrapers once defined the archi-
humans. Our brains’ visual cortexes are tectural landscape of our cities. How- Figure 2
arguably the greatest of all mammals. ever, those landmark giants have been Growth in Outdoor Advertising
This sensorial specificity explains in dwarfed by the ubiquity of billboards Expenditures (in $B): 1980-2006
8
part the motion pictures’ swift inter- that permeate the cities in which we 7 7
national development as the ultimate live and work. Our cities, countryside’s, $6.8
6 6 $6.3
form of mass entertainment in the first and highways have undergone a meta-
decades of the 20th Century. Movie 5 5 $5.2
morphosis characterized by gargantuan
houses offer a rare exposure to moving, 4 4
billboards and other forms of outdoor
3 $3.5
monumental, and primarily anthropo- advertising. 3
2 $2.6
morphic figures, whose psychological Over the last 25 years, (1980-2005), 2

impact is directly proportional to their advertising expenditures in the U.S. 1 1

$1.0
greater-than-life dimensions. It is the have grown approximately $1 billion 0 0
1980 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006
size of the images (Stam 1983), rather every five years. In 24 of the last 35 Source: Outdoor Advertising Association
than the viewing experience—moving years, (1970-2005), annual expendi- of America
versus static—that connect movies and tures increased year to year by more
billboards in a kind of kindred commu- than 8 percent. During this same pe-
nicational potency. This psychological riod expenditures on outdoor advertis- Although the impact of inflation
punch is what makes the social mes- ing increased every single year except can not be ignored, an average annual
sages so powerful (Reynolds 2003). for 1992 and 2001 (OAAA 2006). rate of 2.9 percent from 1990 to 2005,
The populace is inundated by ad- Billions of dollars per year are being (InflationData.com 2007), our analysis
vertising and is in sensory overload. spent on outdoor advertising and these suggests that the growth in outdoor
This deluge minimizes advertising ef- expenditures continue to grow at an advertising revenue is fueled by a sub-
fectiveness and this plethora of adver- average annual rate that is greater than stantial increase in the number of out-
tising creates “noise” or “clutter” that the average annual rate of inflation. In door advertising placements enabled
interferes with the communication fact, Table 1 shows that the average an- by technological advances.
process. Much has been done to con- nual rate of growth for outdoor adver-
trol the in-home exposure to advertis- tising from 1990 to 2005 was nearly 10 The Influence of Technology. Tech-
ing with the use of pop-up blockers, percent, while the average annual rate nology fuels the growth of billboard
spam filters, and TiVo, a technology of inflation during the same time pe- construction and deployment, and has
that allows you to skip commercials. riod was only 2.9 percent. dramatically improved the printing,
Advertisers, relentless in their effort to Figure 2 below reveals that in 1980 displaying, and tracking of billboards.
reach customers effectively, frequently, expenditures on outdoor advertis- Technological advances have resulted in
and at the lowest cost per thousand ing was a record $1 billion. In 2006 it a significant increase in expenditures on
(cpm), have increased the amount allo- hit an all time high of $6.8 billion, up billboards and made billboards compa-
cated in their communication budget $500 million dollars from 2005. From rable with other forms of media.
to out-of-home advertising: billboards, 2000 to 2005 expenditures increased Digital technology has created dra-
street furniture, transit, and radio. more than $1 billion. matic improvements in print quality

34 Fall 2009 • Vol. 24, No. 2

 Lopez-Pumarejo and Bassell

Figure 3
per year from 1995 to 2005 (OAAA The Transformational
2006). Due to digital imaging, bill-
Billboards in Hong Kong, China
boards and other outdoor media can Impact
now be mounted practically anywhere Tel Aviv
and have grown to unprecedented The film Paradise Now hinges on
size. As a result, their power to reach the landmark billboards of Tel Aviv,
consumers and to tower over and Israel (Abu-Hassad 2005). Its final se-
dominate the landscape has increased quence opens with a wide-angle shot,
dramatically (Yin 2002). Alarmed which features a billboard advertising
municipalities have tried to control cellular telephones. It then zooms to a
the explosive deployment of billboard medium shot of the billboard’s model,
Photography: Myles Bassell, Brooklyn images, but the industry is known for a clean-cut, fair-haired young man us-
College, City University of New York agilely circumventing most regulation ing his wireless unit, thus calling atten-
(Kosofky Glassberg 2005; Nielsen tion to the influence of the American
over the past several years. Low qual- 2000 to 2004). and European cultures.
ity images painted or printed on vinyl As Paradise Now underscores, the
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sheets that are glued onto traditional A Global Phenomenon new breed of laser-printed, high-reso-
billboard structures are a thing of the The increasing scale and ubiquity lution billboards have taken on impor-
past. Currently a billboard poster 48 of outdoor advertising is not restricted tant symbolism. In this case, we would
feet wide and 14 feet high has the same to the United States. Even in Russia, argue, they perform a kind of assault on
high quality resolution that once only outdoor advertising has made signifi- the landscapes over which they preside.
magazine publications achieved. The cant inroads. Interestingly, billboards They seem to fulfill a function unlike
use of digital printing enables advertis- are welcome in Russia and viewed as an that of architectural monuments, such
ers to print high quality posters quickly indication of prosperity. Billboards in as the Egyptian pyramids, the Acropo-
and cheaply (OAAA 2006). Russia can be found that say “your ad- lis, and the European cathedrals, of ear-
However, electronic billboards have vertisement beautifies our city,” in bold lier eras. Through their titanic size and
become increasingly more popular black letters with a yellow background, minute pictorial detail these early mar-
as display technology becomes more inviting outdoor advertisers to celebrate vels proclaimed the omnipotence and
pervasive and technological advances Russia’s inclusion in the free market. immortality of their ruling orders. To-
enter the marketplace. While large Today the buildings in Russia’s cities can day’s outdoor advertising, it seems, has
LCD “billboard” screens have been barely be seen behind a sea of billboards a similar, yet opposite, task. It flanks,
effectively used, FED, Field Emission (Leher 2007). In England spending on frames and even wraps buildings in
Display, introduced by Sony and TCI outdoor advertising has grown from enormous, potent images (AHAAMU
in April 2007, promises greater resolu- £677 million in 2001 to £933 million 2001). It thus produces the same syner-
tion (Home Theater News 2007). in 2006. This represents a shift from gies between architecture and pictorial
Digital billboards allow an endless 7.5 percent to 9.7 percent of total Brit- discourse that its predecessors inscribed
number of images to be projected in a ish advertising expenditures (Outdoor in stone. But the “ruling order” it pro-
short period of time. The motion of the Advertising Association of Great Brit- motes is that of the trendy consumer
billboards helps draw attention to the ain 2007). Piccadilly Circus is an area culture, unlike the architectural monu-
images being displayed. Interactive bill- of London that has been impacted by ments of the past.
boards have been gaining momentum this increase in spending on outdoor
as they prove successful in not only get- advertising and has been transformed Harlem
ting attention, but engaging the viewer. by a plethora of billboards. In China, Wall murals and billboards vary in
Thus technology made the communi- the fastest growing form of media is their size and function as landmarks.
cative efficacy of billboards skyrocket outdoor advertising. Outdoor adver- Those at 55 West 125th Street in Har-
worldwide and hence their appeal to tising represents 5 percent of all adver- lem are approximately ten stories in
advertisers who, in the other media, are tising dollars in China (CTR Media height. The latest outdoor advertising
sometimes ignored by consumers. Intelligence 2006). Figure 3 (Bassell technology permits greater flexibility
“Outdoor” is one of the fastest 2006) shows the scale and prominence in the print size and resolution of print.
growing sectors in the U.S. advertis- of billboards in Hong Kong, China. This makes it possible to use buildings
ing market. In 2006 alone, spending This global phenomenon is worth not- to display a giant combination of static
on these communication mediums ing since billboards have a significant and moving high-resolution images
reached an astounding $6.8 billion. transformational impact on the iden- that has a dramatic visual impact and
This represents an 8 percent increase tity and personality of our cities. can set the tone for an entire urban

Fall 2009 • Vol. 24, No. 2 35

 Lopez-Pumarejo and Bassell
landscape. The employment of this includes dropping the kids at school or tion while complementing print, radio,
new technology is part of the ongoing daycare, going to the gym, and before re- and television ads.
surge of outdoor advertising, which turning home, shopping and seeing the Outdoor advertising has as many
began in the 1990s (AHAAMU 2001, kids play soccer. With 70 percent more mass marketing applications. It safe-
PSA Research 2005). women in the workforce than twenty guards against media fragmentation
(it breeds cohesive multi-media com-
munication), capitalizes on creativity,
“The increase and the rapid invention of new ‘outdoor’ offers directional support (indicates
platforms to reach consumers was not an accident. It where to go and what to contact in
strategic sites), provides point-of-sale
was a response to changes in the American way of life.” reminders, and facilitates cooperative
advertising opportunities as when, for
No one denies that huge outdoor years ago, it has become increasingly example, Macy’s billboards advertise
advertising displays set the dominant difficult to reach them through what Gucci (AHAAMU 2001; PSA Re-
tone for entertainment Mecca’s, like outdoor marketers call “traditional me- search 2005).
New York’s Time Square (Reynolds dia.” In addition, this high spending de-
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2003), Las Vegas, Atlantic City, and mographic is a group they do not want Digital Technology
London’s Piccadilly Circus. These to miss. They are, as a result, among the New digital technologies allow
sites achieve a kind of quilt-like vi- top targets of advertising (AHAAMU some gigantic landmark billboards
sual cohesion through the dissonance 2001; Yin 2002). (print and/or electronic) to be relatively
of diverse billboards and signs. But in Marketers describe outdoor adver- permanent, like those at Times Square
other areas, like the part of Tel Aviv in tising as the “catalyst” between mobil- (Ciezadlo, 2004). Digital technology
Paradise Now, where gargantuan bill- ity and sales. Hard-eyed Wall Street has also created a new breed of giant
boards have no significant visual rivals, analysts, on the other hand, define this screen “kinetic” billboards. Still others
or in New York City’s ethnic enclaves, important market less abstractly. For are tri-dimensional. In addition to ra-
such as Flushing (Asian), Washing- them “outdoor” is every media that dio broadcasting, outdoor advertising
ton Heights (Dominicans) and Har- reaches consumers out of the home, is deployed on airport light boxes, bus
lem (Black) where they are part of a including radio. This type of advertis- benches, street furniture, kiosks, train
monothematic ensemble, outdoor ad- ing is increasingly convenient because stations, ferries, postcards that are giv-
vertising has an even more powerful of its relatively lower media cost per en for free at bars, restaurants, and ho-
effect on the locations where they are thousand (cpm), and its reinforcement tels. It also features wrappings around
displayed. Their uncontested promi- of other media. Utilizing GPS tech- buses and taxis, around construction
nence and single theme magnify out- nology, Nielsen Outdoor uses their site scaffoldings and on revamped
door advertising’s ability to perform a Npod tracking system to provide GRP, historic buildings. Digital technology
symbolic domination of the surround- reach, and frequency information. The renders unprecedented levels of print
ing environment. The increase and the ability to calculate the “opportunity to resolution on vinyl, which translates
rapid invention of new “outdoor” plat- see” a particular billboard and use this not only in the ability to wrap public
forms to reach consumers was not an information in media planning puts transportation vehicles but to make
accident. It was a response to changes billboards on a level playing field with mural billboards significantly more
in the American way of life. other media forms that enjoyed mea- flexible in size and permanence (PSA
surement-rating systems for decades Research 2005).
(Nielsen Outdoor 2007). Outdoor
Market Dynamics advertising, in other words, increases Activism and Regulation
Consumers on the Go the number of targets reached and eas- The growth of these new technolo-
One hundred and twenty five mil- ily mixes in with other media (Taylor gies and the increasingly aggressive
lion Americans now commute to work and Franke 2003). It thus generates means of reaching the consumers have
daily. In the last twenty years, the num- a continuous hum in the marketplace naturally created opposition to these
ber of miles they travel in a week has and has a synergistic effect. The new ubiquitous behemoths. American out-
doubled, and drivers are spending more millennium begins as the “brand cen- door advertising, however, has been
time stopped in traffic. The nature of tury”. Billboards and other outdoor particularly crafty in evading attempts
what outdoor advertisers call the “trip advertising remind people that a brand to be controlled. It thrives, despite
chain” has also changed, as the number or service is a good choice, stimulates public antipathy and the complex reg-
of working mothers who commute has long-term product recognition, and ulation that aims at limiting its growth.
increased. The typical trip to work now broadens market-wide media distribu- Naturally, there are federal statutes that

36 Fall 2009 • Vol. 24, No. 2

 Lopez-Pumarejo and Bassell
corporate influence smothers its Flor- to the “forceful and aggressive manner”
Figure 4
Billboards on 125th Street, Harlem,
ida branch’s efforts. New York City’s in which Fields and other community
New York outdoor advertising impact is, along leaders reacted, however, the company
with Miami’s, the country’s greatest backed down and changed the content
(Kosofsky Glassberg 2005). At pres- of the offending advertisement. Fields
ent, the outdoor advertising lobby and said that, unlike album covers, there is
anti-billboard forces are locked in a tug nothing to protect children from being
of war. Meanwhile, new technologies exposed to vulgar words on billboards,
create legal loopholes and new place- dressed down to appear to be some-
ment possibilities. thing else (Boyd 1999).
A few months before this Octo-
Harlem Case Study ber 1999 incident, Councilmember
Photography: Charles Martin, Queens Harlem presents an interesting case Bill Perkins ran a successful campaign
College, City University of New York regarding anti-billboard activism, as against a beer producer to remove
billboards like the one illustrated in Fig- posters of fornicating rhinoceroses
attempt to regulate billboards, but the ure 4 are ubiquitous under the ongoing and turtles (Boyd 1999). A year later,
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stringency of these regulations varies at revitalization at the Upper Manhattan just one day before the Colorado High
the state, county, district and municipal Empowerment Zone (UMEZ 2006). School killings, Perkins headed an-
levels, and in the amount of force with The billboards in Harlem create a other battle against billboards in Har-
which local authorities can challenge theme park effect in what many regard lem. The billboard depicted a young
the billboard owner’s power (Taylor as the capital of African Americans. basketball player holding a gun, and
2006; Nielsen 2000 to 2004). All the billboard models are black, and it went up on Malcolm X Boulevard,
The heat that anti-billboard activ- mostly young, hip, males, that portray between 124th and 125th Streets,
ism has generated attracts both media an image considered by some to be across the street from a high school
and academic attention. For example, economic prosperity. These iconic im- for boys. The advertisement was for a
Miami New Times journalist Kirk ages have come to symbolize Harlem’s new album from Can’Ron, a rap per-
Nielsen covered his city’s billboard residents to themselves, to African former (Siegal 1999). Seven years later,
saga for four years, illustrating the in- Americans as a whole, and to the larg- broadcast and music industry profes-
dustry’s growing invincibility (Niels- er world community. The definition of sionals created “Industry Ears” a think
en 2000 to 2004). Business scholars African American youth they present, tank to clean up what, according to its
Charles Taylor and George Franke, however, is controversial. Neighbor- president, Lisa Fager, is “irresponsible
on the other hand, conducted a study hood activists have been quick to chal- activity” in the media with emphasis
involving billboard users and nonus- lenge these images when they push too on the detrimental effects of hip-hop,
ers to bring an “academic” angle to this far. In 1990, for example, the Reverend particularly, to induce violence against
debate. It warns policy makers about Calvin Butts and a group of parish- women. They seek Federal Commu-
the sales decline that may result from ioners stormed the streets of Harlem nication Commission enforcement of
banning billboards for small businesses with paint and rollers and white- existing regulations regarding content.
and heavy users such as travel-related washed billboards for alcohol and to- “Some defend hip-hop,” said Fager, “as
businesses. This study, however, does bacco, shortly after the “Uptown” ciga- the expression of an ethnic culture on
not distinguish between commercial rette scandal. Many consider Butts to the grounds of free speech and artistic
and societal interests, nor does it deem be Harlem’s most powerful man, and freedom… but if these illiterates with
it its business to do so, as it is linked to “Uptown” was a short-lived R. J. Reyn- gold and diamond in their teeth found
the Outdoor Advertising Association olds brand aimed directly at blacks that reading the Ten Commandments
of America (Taylor and Franke 2003). (Ciezadlo 2004). over hip-hop beats made money, they
Four states currently ban billboards: A year earlier, Manhattan Borough would search the Bible for fresh ‘lyr-
Hawaii, Alaska, Maine, and Vermont President C. Virginia Fields had writ- ics’” (Crouch 2006).
(Taylor and Franke 2003). It is possible ten a sharply worded letter to Rawcus The neighborhood opposition to the
that more states will join the list, as in Entertainment Inc, which placed a previously mentioned billboards and to
2006 the 11th U.S. Circuit Court of billboard at 210 West 125th Street. The outdoor advertising in general, however,
Appeals stipulated that total banning sign read, “Rawcus Says Get the F… is not without its ironies. The Harlem
is not a First Amendment violation Up.” This tasteless slogan was part of a Business Alliance (HBA) itself used the
(Lawlor 2006). The most influential brash campaign to announce the forth- very mode these groups attacked for its
anti-billboard organization is Scenic coming releases of recording artists UMEZ supported aim of attracting lo-
America (Scenic America 2006) but Mos Def and Pharoache. In deference cal residents to neighborhood shops.

Fall 2009 • Vol. 24, No. 2 37

 Lopez-Pumarejo and Bassell
Over 70 percent of Harlemites were supporting and denouncing the retailer’s Lawlor, J. 2006. 11th Circuit explains what
still shopping outside of the village and expansion strategies. makes a billboard ban valid. American
were apparently unaware of the new It remains to be seen if the U.S. civil Planning Association (Nov.): 47-48.
stores that had emerged during Har- actions against outdoor advertising will Leher, B. 2007. From Russia with love: An
lem’s revitalization. be as successful as the anti-Wal-Mart, interview with NBC correspondent
The name of this 2003 campaign was the anti-McDonalds and Al Gore’s anti- Brooke Gladstone live from Moscow
“Shop Harlem.” In it, 100 local retail global warming activism while Moscow [Radio Program]. The Brian Leher Show.
businesses used 30,000 shopping bags welcomes oversize billboards to cover WNYC.
to pack the purchases of their shoppers, the cityscape like an ill-fitted garment. Martin, C. (Photographer). 2006. Harlem
in coordination with a brochure, radio Billboard [Photo]. New York.
spots, and website designed to target Npod Technology and GPS Tracking. 2007.
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resentment toward visual clutter. As pre- N.Y. 295-303. e. 2001 (April 12). Enough billboards
viously indicated, the U.S. Circuit Court Historical inflation data. 2007. Retrieved already! Miami city commissioners:
of Appeals has ruled that banning bill- June 23, 2007, from http://inflationdata. We are outraged, of course, but let’s
boards is not unconstitutional (Lawlor com/inflation/Inflation_Rate/Histori- not be hasty. Retrieved December 9,
2006). The impact of anti-billboard ac- calInflation.aspx?dsInflation_current- 2005, from http://www.miaminew-
tivism cannot be underestimated. Activ- Page=1 times.com/Issues/2001-04-13/news/
ists promoting the movie Supersize Me Kosofsky-Glassberg, B. 2005. New ad city: metro3_print.html
(Morgan Spurlock 2004) have had an Breaking down the cost of getting our f. 2001 (March 29). Miami: America’s
impact on McDonalds. Wal-Mart has attention. New York Magazine. Retrieved billboard sanctuary: Will city com-
also become the focus of considerable November 30, 2005, from www.newy- missioners embrace outdoor advert-
research (Hicks 2007) and activism both orkmagazine.com. ing, or will they heartlessly shun a

38 Fall 2009 • Vol. 24, No. 2

 Lopez-Pumarejo and Bassell
vital industry? Retrieved December aspx?tabid=61
9, 2005, from http://www.miamin- Siegal, N. 1999. Neighborhood report: Har- About the Authors
ewtimes.com/Issues/2002-03-29/ lem; Billboard sets up angry chorus. The
news/metro2_print.html New York Times, May 2.
Tomás A. López-Pumarejo (PhDs
- University of Minnesota and University
g. 2001 (February 15). Things definitely Spurlock, M. (Producer). 2004. Super Size of Valencia) is a full-time faculty mem-
are looking’ up: Miami shakes up its Me. Canada: Sony Pictures. ber at the City University of New York,
shanky image and prepares for the Stam, R. 1983. Television news and its spec- Brooklyn College Business Program. He
big time: Billboard capital of the uni- tator. In Regarding television: Critical has published a book, chapters, and nu-
verse! Retrieved December 9, 2005, approaches, ed. E. A. Kaplan. Los Ange- merous articles in American and Euro-
from http://www.miaminewtimes. les: University Publications of America pean journals of business, and cinema and
com/Issues/2001-02-15/news/met- Inc. television studies. He is an international
ro_print.html Taylor, C. R. and G. R. Franke. 2003. Busi- authority on Latin American television,
and the U.S. coordinator for the research
h. 2000 (November 23). Packed, ness perceptions of the role of billboards
team O.B.I.T.E.L. (Ibero-American Televi-
stacked, and hijacked: How a citizens in the U.S. economy. Journal of Adver- sion Fiction Observatory).
advisory board created to investigate tising Research 43(2):150-161.
illegal billboards became an industry Taylor, M. 2006. Can’t see billboards for the Myles Bassell (MBA - Purdue Univer-
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support group. Retrieved December trees? Retrieved February 23, 2006, from sity) is a full-time faculty member at the
City University of New York, Brooklyn
9, 2005, from http://www.miamin- http://home.hamptonroads.com/sto-
College Business Program and a distin-
ewtimes.com/Issues/2000-11-23/ ries/story.cfm?story=98550&ran=96845
guished business executive, author, men-
news/metro_print.html The PRS Eye Tracking Studies. 1999-2000. tor, and lecturer. Myles is the founder of
i. 2000 ( July 20). A sign of victory: New Validating outdoor’s impact in the mar- The Entrepreneurship Experience Pro-
Times’ jihad to scrub the skyline rolls ketplace. Retrieved February. 23, 2006, gram (TEEP) and Students 4 Students
onward. Retrieved December 9, 2005, from http://www.truckads.com/Eye- (S4S).
from http://www.miaminewtimes.com/ TrackingStudy.pdf
Issues/2000-07-20/news/metro_print. UMEZ. 2006. Upper Manhattan empow-
html erment zone development corporation:
j. 2000 (March 23). Everywhere a sign: Investing in business in Upper Manhat-
When it comes to constructing roadside tan. Retrieved February 23, 2006, from
billboards, the City of Miami is a regular http://www.umez.org/brisktext.htm
free-for-all. New Times. Retrieved De- Yin, S. 2002. Counting eyes on billboards.
cember 9, 2005, from http://www.mi- Retrieved from http://www.findarticles.
aminewtimes.com/Issues/2000-06-01/ com
news/metro2_print.html
Outdoor Advertising Association of Great
Britain. 2007. Outdoor’s share of dis-
play & all advertising. Retrieved May
C A L L F O R PA P E R S – S P E C I A L I S S U E

IMMIGRATION
11, 2007, from http://www.oaa.org.uk/
Market_Data/data/Share_of_Advertis-
ing.xls
Outdoor Advertising Association of Amer-
ica 2006. History of outdoor advertis-
ing. Retrieved February, 23, 2006, from
IN THE GLOBAL WORKPLACE
http://www.oaaa.org/outdoor/sales/his- Submission deadline • Immigration and the globalization of the American
tory.asp June 1, 2010
economy
PSA Research. 2005. A resurgence in one • Immigration and workforce recruitment
of the oldest media presents new op- Send to:
• Immigration, gender, and the workplace
portunities. Retrieved May 24, 2005, Editor-in-Chief Ashok Gupta
• Illegal immigration and labor in the United States
from http://www.psaresearch.com/case- [email protected]
• Marketing to immigrants in the United States
foroutdoorpsa.html • Immigrants, redlining, and the banking community
Reynolds, M. 2003. Branding the great out- Complete submission guidelines
• Immigrants as cross-border consumers
doors. Multichannel News, June 9. available online:
• Immigration and trade flows
Scenic America. 2006. Billboards and sign • Immigration and remittances
control. Retrieved February 23, 2006, www.AJBonline.org • Comparative immigration flows (e.g., Mexican vs.
Indian in the United States)
from http://www.scenic.org/Default.

Fall 2009 • Vol. 24, No. 2 39

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 This article has been cited by:

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Use, Community Characteristics, and the Spatial Inequality of a Public Health Nuisance. American Journal of Public Health 104,
658-664. [CrossRef]
2. Thérèse Roux, De la Rey van der Waldt, Lené Ehlers. 2013. A classification framework for out-of-home advertising media in
South Africa. Communicatio 39, 383-401. [CrossRef]
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