Quality Management

Before you read this chapter, think about the quality QUICKTEST
management plan on your project. If you do not have
a quality management plan, or if you do not manage Quality management • Root cause analysis
quality now, this could be a difficult topic for you on process • Failure analysis
the exam. This chapter will help you understand Definition of quality • Multicriteria decision
quality and its role in the project management process. • Gold plating analysis
Prevention over inspection • Affinity diagrams
Some people argue that project managers do not have Continuous improvement • Audits
time to spend managing quality, and many Just in time (JIT) • Design for X
organizations do not require their project managers to • Problem-solving
Responsibility for quality
have quality management plans. But think about the • Test and evaluation
Interviews
impact of managing quality on your projects. Alack of
Brainstorming documents
attention to quality results in rework or defects. The • Quality reports
more rework you have to do, the more time and
Benchmarking
Cost-benefit analysis • Mutual exclusivity
money you are wasting, and the less likely you are to
impact of poor quality • Probability
meet the project schedule and cost baselines. With a
Cost of quality • Normal distribution
focus on quality, you can spend time preventing—
Costs of conformance and • Statistical independence
rather than dealing with— problems. You can actually
save time on the project that you would have otherwise nonconformance • Standard deviation
spent on rework and problem-solving. Marginal analysis • 3 or 6 sigma
Logical data models • Checksheets
Projects and organizations determine their approach • Flowcharts • Statistical sampling
to quality management. For some, that may mean Test and inspection planning • Questionnaires and surveys
simply responding to customer complaints about the Checklists 0 Performance reviews
quality of deliverables. Others inspect their • Inspection
Quality metrics 0

deliverables for quality before they reach the customer. Control charts
0 Quality management plan 0
More informed organizations not only inspect their • Cause-and-effect diagrams - Assignable cause/
deliverables, but also evaluate and adjust their quality
• Histograms special cause variation
management processes in an effort to identify the
• Pareto diagrams - Control limits
causes of defects. An even better approach includes
0 Scatter diagrams - Mean
these quality management and process improvements,
• Document analysis - Specification limits
as well as planning quality into projects. Ideally, an
organization embraces all these efforts as part o f a
0 Alternatives analysis - Out of control
total commitment to providing the required level of
• Design of experiments - Rule of seven
quality. This chapter will improve your understanding 0 Process analysis
of the efforts required to address quality at the most
effective level.

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 Quality Management
INITIATING PLANNING EXECUTING MONITORING & CLOSING
(This is the only process group
Select project manager
with a set order.) CONTROLLING Confirm work is done to
requirements
Determine company culture Determine development Take action to monitor and
and existing systems approach, life cycle, and control the project
Complete final procurement
how you will plan for each closure
Collect processes, procedures, knowledge area Measure performance against
and historical information performance measurement Gain final acceptance of
Define and prioritize baseline product
Divide large projects into requirements
phases or smaller projects Measure performance against
Complete financial closure
Create project scope statement other metrics in the project
Understand business case and management plan
Hand off completed product
benefits management plan Assess what to purchase and
Analyze and evaluate data and
create procurement documents Solicit customer s feedback
Uncover initial requirements, performance
about the project
assumptions, risks, constraints, Determine planning team
Determine if variances warrant
and existing agreements Complete final performance
a corrective action or other
Create WBS and WBS change request(s) reporting
Assess project and product dictionary
feasibility within the given Influence factors that cause Index and archive records
constraints Create activity list change
Gather final lessons learned
Create measurable objectives Create network diagram Request changes and update knowledge bases
and success criteria
Estimate resource requirements Perform integrated change
Develop project charter control
Estimate activity durations
Identify stakeholders and and costs Approve or reject changes
determine their expectations,
interest, influence, and impact Determine critical path Update project management
plan and project documents
Develop schedule
Request changes
Inform stakeholders of all
Develop budget change request results
Determine quality standards, Monitor stakeholder
processes, and metrics
engagement
Determine team charter and all Use issue logs
Confirm configuration
roles and responsibilities
Facilitate conflict resolution compliance
Plan communications and
Release resources as work is Create forecasts
stakeholder engagement
completed
Gain customer’s acceptance of
Perform risk identification,
Send and receive information, interim deliverables
qualitative and quantitative
and solicit feedback
risk analysis, and risk response Perform quality control
planning
Report on project performance
Perform risk reviews,
Go back— iterations
Facilitate stakeholder reassessments, and audits
Finalize procurement strategy engagement and manage
expectations Manage reserves
and documents
Hold meetings Manage, evaluate, and close
Create change and procurements
configuration management
Evaluate sellers; negotiate and
plans Evaluate use of physical
contract with sellers
resources
Finalize all management plans
Use and share project
knowledge
Develop realistic and sufficient
project management plan and
Execute contingency plans
baselines
Update project management
Gain formal approval of the
plan and project documents
plan

Hold kickoff meeting

Request changes
Rita’s Process Chart™
Quality M anagem ent
Where are we in the project
management process?
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 Quality Management

If asked, “Is it better to plan in quality or to inspect to find quality problems? almost everyone will answer
correctly that it is better to plan in quality. However, that is not how most of the quality-related questions
are presented on the exam. Instead, exam questions focus on situations to see if you know what to do.
For example:

T h e p r o j e c t m a n a g e r f i n d s t h a t o n e o f h is t e a m m e m b e r s h a s c r e a t e d t h e i r o w n p r o c e s s f o r i n s t a l l i n g

h a rd w a re. W h a t s h o u ld th e p r o je c t m a n a g e r d o ?

Beginning project managers might choose a response that relates to thanking the team member for the
effort. More experienced project managers might select a choice that relates to finding out if the process
was a good one. The best project managers select the choice that relates to investigating the quality
management plan to determine if a standard process should have been followed.

People without quality management experience generally have a hard time with such questions. Fortunately,
not all the quality questions on the exam are that difficult. Expect to see exam questions that refer to
different project environments (for example, the project manager works for a manufacturer of tables). This
does not mean you have to learn about all industries. The exam may highlight manufacturing because
quality is an important factor in that industry, and manufacturing examples tend to be understandable to
all. Focus on the situation that is being described. Also expect questions about the process of quality
management and how quality relates to the project constraints, as defined in this book.

Imagine a project to build a stadium. The concrete part of the work is two-thirds done when the buyer
arrives one day and tests the strength of the concrete. The buyer finds that the concrete does not meet the
clearly stated quality requirements for strength in the contract. You can imagine the problems when the
buyer says, “Rip out the concrete; it is not acceptable.” W hose fault is this? W hy did this occur?

Could we say it is the buyer’s fault for not testing the concrete sooner? You might argue that case, but isn t
the real fault with the seller for not testing the quality throughout the project? Where was their quality
plan? They should have noted the requirement and determined when and how they would confirm they
had met it. Lack of attention to quality in this scenario needlessly added considerable risk to the project,
which resulted in a tremendous amount of rework and additional expense.

Here is something else to consider. Have any of your customers ever said one of your deliverables was not
acceptable, even though they had not provided you with a definition of what was acceptable? It is important
to know— in advance— what acceptable quality is and how it will be measured on the project. You can then
determine what you will do to make sure the project meets those requirements. It is the project manager s
responsibility to make sure that quality is defined in the plan. If you do not take these steps, you will have
unclear acceptance criteria, such as “the customer likes it.” Performing the quality management process
well helps you avoid many issues later in the project.

The following should help you understand how each part of quality management fits into the overall project
management process:

The Quality Management Process Done During

Plan Quality Management Planning process group

Manage Quality Executing process group

Control Quality Monitoring and controlling process group

Before we start discussing these three processes in detail, let’s look at some basic quality management
concepts that you should understand for the exam.

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Quality Management

Definition Of Quelity What is quality? Know the short definition for the exam. Quality
\ f *s defined as the degree to which the project fulfills requirements. Memorize this phrase; it may
help you with up to four questions on the exam.

Now here is a story about quality. A student in one of R M C ’s classes looked out the window during class
and noticed someone painting the limestone of an old building white. The student said, “That is not
quality! Let s think about the student s statement for a moment. Why would such painting not be “quality”?
If the painting contract required the painter to use a certain kind o f paint and follow painting standards, and
he was doing so, the work met the quality requirements. The issue the student really had was that the
wonderful old stone was being painted instead of cleaned. In other words, this was a disagreement with the
requirements, not the quality of the work.

Let s review the definition o f quality again: the degree to which the project fulfills requirements. In a plan-
driven, or predictive, environment, can you achieve quality if you do not have all the stated and unstated
requirements defined in the project scope statement and requirements documentation? O f course not. This
makes the requirements-gathering effort (from scope management), the requirements documentation, and
the project scope statement very important to the quality management effort. In a change-driven, or
adaptive, environment, we capture quality requirements and acceptance criteria in user stories. As user
stories are prioritized, quality efforts will be planned in detail for releases and iterations.

You may see situational questions on the exam that use the term “grade” in discussing quality. Whereas
quality is the degree to which a project (or deliverable) fulfills requirements, grade refers to a general
category or classification of a deliverable or resource that indicates common function, but varying technical
specifications. For example, a low grade of concrete that supports limited weight might be sufficient for a
project s needs and could be of acceptable quality if it meets the established quality requirements, such as
having zero defects. Likewise, a high grade o f concrete intended to sustain more weight could be of
unacceptable quality if it is mixed or poured to low standards, or otherwise fails to meet the established
quality metrics.

Definition Of QllBlity MdnOQement Quality management includes creating and following

organizational policies and procedures and tailoring them to ensure the project also meets the needs of the
customer. We could also say it means ensuring a project is completed in compliance with the project
requirements. Quality management includes the processes of Plan Quality Management, Manage Quality,
and Control Quality.

Quality-RelatGd PMI-iSmS Quality-related questions can be confusing because

I j f J W i many of the topics on the exam are not covered in the PMBOK® Guide. The exam may test your
understanding of the need to satisfy project requirements, as opposed to giving the customer
extras. It is important to apply this approach to quality management in order to answer exam questions
correctly. Know the following PMI-isms related to quality:
• Quality means meeting requirements, not adding extras.
• The project manager must determine the metrics to be used to measure quality before the project
work begins.
• The project manager must define quality management processes for the project and put into place
a plan for continually improving them.
• The project manager should recommend improvements to the performing organizations standards,
policies, and processes. Such recommendations are expected and welcomed by management.

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 Qualitv Manaaement
• 8#

• Quality should be checked before an activity or work package is completed.

• The project manager must ensure that authorized approaches and processes are followed.
• Quality should be considered whenever there is a change to any of the project constraints.
• The project manager must ensure that the quality standards and processes on the project are
adequate to meet quality requirements.
• Some quality activities may be performed by a quality department.

Quality M anagem ent in the Real World Many people getting ready for this exam have
limited quality management experience, so they struggle with envisioning how quality management efforts
fit into managing a project in the real world. The following scenario, along with the diagram in figure 8.1,
will help clarify these concepts:
1. The customer determines their requirements.
2. The project team clarifies those requirements.
3. The project team defines what work will be done to meet those requirements (project scope).
4. The project manager determines the existing standards, policies, and procedures that might be
available for the project. The quality department might assist in identifying the relevant standards.
5. The project manager creates other standards and processes that may be needed.
6 . The project manager develops the quality management plan, encompassing relevant standards
and processes.
7. The project manager integrates quality with other knowledge area plans to get an approved project
management plan.
8 . The team begins executing the project management plan.
8 a. The team or the quality department evaluates the quality of project deliverables against planned
metrics and standards. (Control Quality)
8b. The team or the quality department audits the project work periodically as part of the executing
process, looking for indications that the standards, policies, plans, and procedures are not being
followed or need to be changed. (Manage Quality)
8 c. Results are analyzed.
9. Deliverables are verified.
10. Lessons learned are documented and shared.
11. Change requests, including corrective and preventive action and defect repair, are sent to integrated
change control.
12. Change requests, including corrective and preventive action and defect repair, are approved or
rejected in integrated change control.
13. The team adjusts plans as needed to accommodate approved or rejected changes and returns to step
7 until project deliverables are complete and verified.
14. New organizational process assets, including lessons learned, are shared with the organization.
15. Verified deliverables are accepted by the customer, the project is completed, quality targets are
reached, and the customer is happy.

The quality management process is represented by the shaded area of figure 8.1.

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Quality Management s * b h

FIGURE 8.1 Q u a lity m a n a g e m e n t

Gold Plating Do you remember a time on a project when one o f your team members delivered
more than what was needed? Can you think of a time when you’ve had trouble keeping a project from
producing the Taj Mahal when all you needed was a garage, for example?

Gold plating refers to giving the customer extras (extra functionality higher-quality components, extra
scope, or better performance). Although your company might have a policy that promotes gold plating (for
example, “Meet and exceed customers’ expectations.”), advanced quality thinking does not recommend
“exceeding” as a best practice. Gold plating is often the team’s impression of what is valued by the customer,
and the customer might not agree. It is also a problem because so few projects provide what the customer
wanted. Since most projects have difficulty meeting the project objectives, all available effort should go into
achieving those objectives, instead of into gold plating.

Sometimes gold plating is not planned, but rather arises out of a team member’s efforts to do the best they
can. The project might not call for the best, however, just what was asked for. Therefore, the project manager
must be on the lookout for team members providing extra functionality, extra work, or higher quality than
is required for the project.

Prevention over Inspection Is it better to inspect work to find problems or to prevent them
in the first place? W hich takes less effort and is less costly? Remember that quality must be planned in, not
inspected in! The concept of prevention over inspection was advocated by quality theorist Philip Crosby.
You may see exam questions that test your understanding that failure to plan quality into a project will lead
to problems later in the project.

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 Quality Management

Continuous Improvement Continuous improvement involves continuously looking for ways

to improve the quality of work, processes, and results. The terms “continuous improvement and Kaizen
are taken to mean the same thing on the exam; however, in Japan, Kaizen2 means to alter (kai) and make
better or improve (zen). Kaizen is a general term, while continuous improvement is a quality movement. In
the United States and most of Western Europe, continuous improvement focuses on major improvements.
In Japan, the emphasis is on smaller improvements. Continuous improvement o f project management
within an organization can include analysis of how quality management is planned and utilized on projects.

Similarly, the philosophy of total quality management3 developed by quality expert W. Edwards Deming
encourages companies and their employees to focus on finding ways to continuously improve the quality
of their products and their business practices at every level of the organization.

Another approach to continuous improvement is Six Sigma4— a methodology for achieving organizational
process improvement and high levels of correctness with extremely reduced variances. Sigma is another
name for standard deviation. It indicates how much variance from the mean has been established as
permissible in a process. Ih e higher the sigma, the fewer deviations (less variance) in the process. The level
of quality required by an organization is usually represented by 3 or 6 sigma.

Just in Time (JIT)5 Many companies find that holding raw materials or other resources in inven­
tory is not only too expensive but also unnecessary. Instead, they have their suppliers deliver resources just
before they are needed, thus decreasing inventory to nearly zero. A company using J IT must achieve a high
level of quality in their practices; otherwise, there will not be enough materials or equipment to meet produc­
tion requirements because of waste and rework. A J I T system forces attention on quality as well as schedule.

Responsibility for Quality The project manager has the ultimate responsibility for the quality
of the product of the project, but each team member must check their work by inspecting it themselves. It
is not acceptable for team members to simply complete the work and then turn it over to the project
manager or their manager to be checked. Work should meet the project requirements, and testing should
be done whenever appropriate before submitting the work.

According to W. Edwards Deming, 85 percent of the quality problems on a project are attributable to the
management environment and the system in which the team works. Therefore, senior management is
responsible for promoting an organizational approach that supports quality efforts. This often includes a
quality department that determines quality management methodologies the project manager is required to
follow.

Understanding the Difference between Plan Quality M anagem ent, Manage

Quality, and Control Quality One of the major challenges people have while studying this
topic is understanding the difference between Plan Quality Management, Manage Quality, and Control
Quality. Some of this confusion maybe a result of differences between what companies call these processes
and what the exam calls them. It may also be a result of the confusing nature o f some of the questions in this
knowledge area.

For purposes of the exam, here is a brief description of the three processes:
• Plan Quality Management This process focuses on defining quality for the project, the product, and
project management, and planning how it will be achieved.
• Manage Quality Because it is an executing process, the Manage Quality process is focused on the
work being done on the project. Its purpose is to ensure the team is following organizational policies,
standards, and processes as planned to produce the project s deliverables. The project manager also
evaluates whether the quality management plan or processes need to be improved or modified.

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Quality Management

* Control Quality Control Quality, a monitoring and controlling process, includes examining the
actual deliverables produced on the project to ensure they are correct and meet the planned level o f
quality, evaluating variances, finding the source o f problems, and recommending ways to address them.

fijffiEI rfhe following chart presents a trick for understanding the three quality management processes.

i ^ now to gain a clearer understanding of the focuses of each process before reading the
rest of this chapter. In the detailed descriptions, you will see combinations o f actions and
outputs. Can you spot them? You may want to review this chart after you read the in-depth discussions
of each of the processes.

Plan Quality Management Manage Quality Control Quality

Process Group
Project planning Project executing Project monitoring and
controlling
High-Level Description of What Each Process Focuses On
• What is quality? Are we following the Are the results of our work
• How will we ensure it? policies, metrics, meeting the standards and
procedures, and processes required metrics?
as planned? Is the variance within
Are the procedures and acceptable limits, or do we
processes giving us the have to take action?
intended results?
Will we meet the quality
objectives?
More Detailed Description of What Each Process Focuses On
Review management Use measurements from Inspect and measure the
plans and project Control Quality to quality of deliverables to
documents to understand confirm that: determine whether they
quality requirements on —Policies and processes are meet requirements.
the project. being followed Use the PM IS to track
Identify quality practices —Policies, metrics, and deviations from planned
as well as internal and processes are still appro­ quality.
external standards relevant priate for the project Identify the need for
to the product, project,
—Policies and processes are quality improvements
and project management
effective in achieving (corrective or preventive
efforts (OPAs and EEFs).
planned quality results action, and defect repair).
Create additional project-
Use data-representation Complete checklists and
specific processes,
techniques to analyze checksheets, perform
standards, and metrics.
results of quality testing. tests, and evaluate results.
Determine the processes
Determine the root cause Graphically document
that will be used on the
o f quality problems/ results of testing and
project.
variances from plan. evaluation using data-
Determine what work you representation techniques.
Perform continuous
will do to meet the
improvement to increase Verify deliverables.
standards.
efficiency and Validate approved
Determine how you will effectiveness. changes.
measure to make sure you
Create test and evaluation Recommend
meet the standards.
documents for use in improvements to testing
Plan for process Control Quality. processes.
improvement.

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 Quality Management

Plan Quality Management Manage Quality Control Quality

More Detailed Description of What Each Process Focuses On
• Perform cost o f quality, • Determine if project • Use and update lessons
cost-benefit, and other activities comply with learned.
analysis work to make organizational and project • Submit change requests.
certain the appropriate policies, processes, and
• Update the project
level of quality will be procedures— perform a
management plan and
planned in. quality audit. project documents.
• Determine roles and • Solve problems.
responsibilities for • Produce reports.
achieving quality
• Share good practices with
requirements and
others in the organization.
objectives.
• Submit change requests.
• Plan for testing and
inspection to check that • Update the project
management plan and
requirements,
performance, reliability, project documents.
and quality goals and
objectives are achieved.
• Interface the quality
management plan with
other management plans
to balance the needs of
quality with scope, cost,
time, risk, resources, and
customer satisfaction
requirements.
• Finalize a quality
management plan as part
of the project
management plan.

Plan Quality M anagem ent PAGE 277 Process Plan Quality Management
J Process Group Planning
Knowledge Area Quality Management
The objectives of the Plan Quality Management process are to
identify all relevant organizational or industry practices, standards, and requirements for the quality of the
project, the product of the project, and the project management efforts, and then to plan howto meet those
quality standards and requirements. The main result of this process is a quality management plan.

It is important to keep in mind that the level o f quality efforts should be appropriate to the needs of the
project. There is no reason to negatively impact project scope, time, or cost if higher quality is not required
on the project. Quality must be balanced with the other project constraints. That sounds easy, right? Often,
however, it is not. The project scope statement, W BS, and W BS dictionary (the scope baseline) help the
project manager maintain the proper perspective and plan quality to the appropriate level.

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Quality Management e i g h t

On many projects and in many organizations, practices are not standardized. If this is true on your projects,
take some time now to imagine what such standardized practices would be for your projects and how they
might be helpful to you. For example, a construction company could choose to establish a standardized
practice for installing wallpaper on home construction projects. Imagine all the wallpaper installers within
that organization putting together their best ideas to make the work of installing wallpaper easier on future
projects. That would be a valuable effort. As another example, the PMBOK ®Guide is a practice standard for
project management. Standardization can come from within the organization or from government or
professional associations. The performing organization or the project may adopt these practices as they
apply to the work of the project. As part of the Plan Quality Management process, the project manager
needs to look for any such standards that will help the project avoid “reinventing the wheel,” so to speak,
and achieve the level o f quality that is required. Some available standards include:
• The United Nations Convention on Contracts for International Sale o f Goods (C ISG ) 6 The
CISG is the standard that governs international sales transactions.
• ISO 9 0 0 0 7 This family of standards was created by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO ) to help ensure that organizations have quality procedures and that they follow them. Many
people incorrectly believe that ISO 9000 tells you what quality should be, or describes a recom­
mended quality system.
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSH A) OSHA sets standards for the safety of
American workers.

Organizational process assets and enterprise environmental factors inform the project manager o f relevant
standards, policies, and procedures. They include lessons learned from previous projects and the performing
organizations idea of the best way to accomplish work.

The project manager must plan the project so it also meets the customer s quality standards, which might
be outlined in an agreement (contract) or need to be discovered as part of the Collect Requirements
process. Quality requirements are documented, analyzed, and prioritized according to the requirements
management plan. Examples of such standards are the acceptable number of software bugs per module, the
strength o f concrete, or the average time per installation. These measures of quality will help the project
manager know when the project is out of control and when to request changes, including corrective actions
and preventive actions designed to prevent the problem from reoccurring.

Once existing practices and standards are identified, the project manager must create any additional
project-specific standards and procedures that are needed.

A project manager may create standards and procedures based on how quality is defined for each piece of
work. For the exam, you should understand that this effort could also include defining processes for how
project management activities should be done, and suggesting improvements to existing processes. The
new practices cannot violate other relevant standards.

After the standards and procedures have been identified or created, the project manager needs to determine
what work is required to meet those standards. Additional testing may need to be planned into the project,
resources may need to be moved around, or the descriptions o f products to be purchased may need to be
changed. The project manager should also determine the specific measurements that will be made each
week or each month, or for each deliverable, to ensure compliance with all standards.

Management plans and documentation that influence quality planning include the stakeholder engagement
plan and stakeholder register, a list of the major project deliverables (requirements management plan), risk
thresholds (risk management plan), and approval requirements (project charter). The assumption log
provides insight into the level of quality that is assumed to be acceptable on the project. The requirements
traceability matrix shows the origin of requirements related to quality and will be used to confirm that
quality requirements, particularly external compliance requirements, have been achieved.

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 Quality Management

Plan Quality M anagem ent Tools and Techniques page 281 n * following are
some tools and techniques used in the Plan Quality Management process. Remember that the objective of
using these tools and techniques is to determine what quality requirements, procedures, and standards for
the project and product should be.

Interviews, Brainstorming, and Benchmarking8 There are numerous tools and techniques you
can use to identify existing standards, processes, and metrics or to create new ones. Interviews and brain­
storming can help identify appropriate ways to measure quality on the project along with the metrics or
processes to be used. You may recall learning about these techniques in the Scope Management chapter.

Benchmarking was also discussed as a technique used in scope management. Here, benchmarking is used
to review methodologies used by comparable projects or organizations to establish quality metrics and
acceptable variance ranges, and to measure quality.

Decision-Making An important aspect of planning is determining priorities and choosing between

options. In the Plan Quality Management process, key decisions might include selecting the most critical
metrics or prioritizing quality requirements. Decision-making tools and techniques for planning quality
include multicriteria decision analysis and prioritization matrices.

COSt-Benefit Analysis9 Using this data analysis technique, the project manager analyzes the benefits
versus the costs of quality efforts to determine the appropriate quality level and requirements for the
project. As noted in the Integration Management chapter, this technique can also be used in project selec­
tion and in other planning efforts, including assessing the costs and benefits o f potential risk responses.

The exam will test your knowledge about the effects o f quality efforts, or the lack thereof. Note that if you
have poor quality, you might also have:
• Increased costs
• Decreased profits
• Low morale
• Low customer satisfaction
9 Increased risk
• Rework

Cost of Quality (COQ)10 Evaluating the cost of quality means making sure the project is not spending
too much to achieve a particular level of quality. It involves looking at what the costs of conformance and
nonconformance 11 to quality will be on the project and creating an appropriate balance. This concept was
popularized by the quality expert Philip Crosby. The following table provides some examples of the costs
of conformance and nonconformance to quality.

Cost of Conformance Cost of Nonconformance

Quality training Rework o f deliverables not meeting quality standards
Studies Scrap
Measuring quality of interim deliverables Inventory costs
Customer satisfaction surveys (and work to Warranty costs
respond to issues raised)
Efforts to ensure everyone knows the processes Lost business
to use to complete their work

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Quality Management

The costs of conformance should be lower than the costs of nonconformance. Otherwise, why spend time
improving quality? Cost o f quality is planned in the Plan Quality Management process and then monitored
and measured throughout the life of the project.

A term related to this concept is marginal analysis,12which is analysis focused on finding the point at which
the benefits or revenue to be received from improving quality equals the incremental cost to achieve that
quality. Sometimes added attention to something such as quality does not produce added value. W hen that
point is reached, you should stop trying to improve quality.

Logical Data Models The logical data model can be presented using an entity relationship diagram—
a method of representing and analyzing data. A logical data model contains a description of the quality
needs of the project. It is used to understand the requirements, clarify business rules, and define processes.
It can be used to create and refine quality plans that best meet the needs of the project.

Matrix Diagrams13 A matrix diagram is a visual representation of the relationship between two or
more sets of items. In the Plan Quality Management process, matrix diagrams can be used to sort quality
requirements and identify the requirements that are most critical to the project. With this information,
appropriate metrics may be planned to track and measure project progress.

A type of matrix diagram, a prioritization matrix is useful for decision analysis about quality management
plan components (organizational policies, processes, and requirements) that may need to change.

An example of a matrix diagram is the probability and impact matrix shown in the Risk Management
chapter of this book as a tool of qualitative risk analysis.

Mind Mapping As discussed in the Scope Management chapter, a mind map is a diagram of ideas or
notes to help generate, classify, or record information. It is used here to facilitate the gathering of quality
requirements and illustrate their impacts on other parts o f project planning.

Flowcharts Flowcharts may also be referred to as process flows or process maps. They show how a
process or system flows from beginning to end, how the elements interrelate, alternative paths the process
can take, and how the process translates inputs into outputs. A common flowchart model is a SIPOC,
which shows the connections between the supplier, input, process, output, and customer in a process.
Flowcharts can be used in many parts of project management. In the Plan Quality Management process,
flowcharts can help determine the cost o f quality by mapping the expected monetary value of pursuing
paths of conformance and nonconformance to quality.

Flowcharts are also useful for defining and communicating processes that will be used on the project. Also,
they can be analyzed to determine how processes will be measured for conformance and effectiveness.

You can also use this tool in Plan Quality Management to visualize a process and find potential quality
problems or quality control issues. Imagine that work results are passed to four departments for approval.
Might this lead to quality problems? W hat about an unfinished fragile product in a manufacturing
environment? Would the quality of the product be reduced if it needed to be passed by hand from person
to person?

A generic example of a flowchart is shown in figure 8.2.

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 Quality Management

----- >.

V I
\
Yes —

FIGURE 8.2 Flowchart

Test and Inspection Planning Plan Quality Management includes determining how the team will
confirm that the required level of quality has been achieved in the completed project deliverables, as well as
how the deliverables will be evaluated for performance and reliability. Testing methods, which vary
depending upon the type of product, service, or result being created by the project, are used in the Control
Quality process.

M66tinQS Developing management plans requires the collaboration of the project manager and team.
The project manager may hold meetings specifically focused on project planning. Note that any of the tools
and techniques discussed in this section may be used within those meetings as part of quality manage­
ment planning.

O lltp iitS Of P la n Q u a lity M S n S Q O m S flt PAGE 286 The Plan Quality Mangement Process
results in the following outputs.

Quality Management Plan Remember that the purpose of the Plan Quality Management process is
to determine what quality is and to put a plan in place to deliver that level of quality. This plan is called the
quality management plan. It also includes analyzing processes to find ways to increase efficiency and
prevent problems, which saves money and increases the probability that the customer will be satisfied.

Most quality management plans include the following:

• The quality practices and standards that apply to the project
• W ho will be involved in managing quality, when, and what their specific duties will be*
• W hat processes will be followed to help ensure quality
• A review of earlier decisions to make sure those decisions are correct
• The meetings that will be held regarding quality
• The reports that will address quality
• W hat metrics will be used to measure quality
• W hat parts of the project or deliverables will be measured and when

Quality Metrics Throughout this book, there is an underlying theme that the project manager must
know how the project is performing compared to what was planned and be able to determine when to
request changes. The only way to effectively do this is to determine metrics in advance. This means the
project manager needs to think through the areas on the project that are important to measure and (in most
cases) decide what range of variation is acceptable. The following are some examples of quality metrics:
• The number of changes (to help measure the quality o f the project management planning process)
• The variance related to resources utilization

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Quality Management

• The number of items that fail inspection

• The variance of the weight of a product produced by the project compared to the planned weight
• The number of bugs found in software that is being developed as part of the project

As a project manager, you must know what processes are being used on the project, analyze their
effectiveness, and create additional processes as necessary, while also improving those processes as they are
being used. This plan for analysis and improvement o f these processes is included in the quality management
plan. Improving existing processes saves time by increasing efficiency and preventing problems. It also
saves money and increases the probability that the customer will be satisfied.

Project Management Plan and Project Documents Updates The Plan Quality Management
process will result in additions or changes (iterations) to the project management plan and project docu­
ments. For example, quality management work may be added to the project. This work is documented in
the scope baseline (W BS and W BS dictionary) as well as in the requirements traceability matrix, and may
necessitate adjustments to the project activity list, schedule, budget, and resource assignments. Additional
risks related to quality may be added to the risk register, and risk management efforts may be added to the
project management plan.

M anage Quality PAGE 288 Process Manage Quality

Process Group Executing
Knowledge Area Quality Management
Manage Quality is performed while the project work is being done.
A group outside the project team, such as a quality department, often handles this work on a project. The
efforts of this process focus on making certain that the project work, the processes followed, and the
deliverables that are produced conform to the quality management plan.

Do you remember the discussion of conformance and nonconformance to quality in the “Plan Quality
Management” section o f this chapter? The items included in the list of costs of conformance (for example,
quality training, measuring interim deliverables, and ensuring the project team understands and follows
the accepted processes) refer to the work o f both the Manage Quality and Control Quality processes.

Processes to ensure quality standards will be met are reviewed to make sure they are effective, and are being
followed correctly. Quality audits, failure analysis, and design of experiments (described later in this
chapter) may be done to see if the quality management plan with the standards, metrics, processes, and
procedures may need to change. Test and evaluation documents, for use in Control Quality, are prepared as
a part o f Manage Quality.

This process uses the quality management plan, including quality requirements, and analyzes measurements
gathered in Control Quality to answer the following questions:
• Are the quality requirements, organizational policies, and processes identified in the quality
management plan giving us the results we intended?
• Based on what we know now, is the work we planned the right quality work for this project and the
right work to meet customer requirements?
• Are we following the procedures and processes as planned?
• Can the processes and procedures be improved?
• How can we increase efficiency and prevent problems ?

The process o f managing quality also includes evaluating all aspects of the product design to confirm that
the end result will meet quality requirements and identifying possible improvements to the design or the
process of producing it.

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 s g h t Quality Management

The work performed in Manage Quality will uncover any processes that maybe resulting in a level of quality
that is not acceptable according to the quality management plan.

M anage Quality Tools and Techniques PAGE 292 The quality management plan is
created to prevent quality issues. The following tools and techniques are used to evaluate the success of our
planning efforts. You will see that many of these accomplish the same thing, but in different ways. Not all of
these tools and techniques will be used on every project. The choice depends on the preferences of the
project manager, and organizational requirements regarding quality management, as well as the needs of a
particular project.

Checklists In Manage Quality, a checklist can be used to confirm that the steps of a process have all
been completed. It may also be used to analyze defects discovered in quality inspections, looking for issues
within the process, and to assess whether a deliverable meets the acceptance criteria.

Cause-and-Effect (Fishbone, Ishikawa, or Why-Why) Diagrams14 A project manager can use

cause-and-effect diagrams to confirm that policies and procedures are being followed and that metrics are
being used correctly, and that they were adequate to produce the required level of quality in project deliv­
erables. Figure 8.4 in the “Control Quality” section of this chapter is an example of a cause-and-
effect diagram.

Histograms15 In this process, histograms are used to analyze the type and frequency of defects in order
to identify where the quality plan and processes may need improvement as the project moves forward.
Figure 8.5 and figure 8.6 in the Control Quality section of this chapter are both examples of histograms.

Scatter Diagrams16 This diagram tracks two variables to determine their relationship to the quality of
the results. Figure 8.7 in the “Control Quality” section of this chapter shows three examples of
scatter diagrams.

Document Analysis Document analysis involves reviewing the results of testing and other quality
reports to identify ways in which the quality management plan and processes may not be supporting the
production of deliverables that meet the project quality requirements.

Alternatives Analysis It is important to consider all the ways to solve an issue or problem. In Manage
Quality, alternatives analysis may be used to evaluate which action would best impact the results of quality
management efforts or processes. For example, would a new automated testing tool be o f more benefit than
redefining the testing process?

Design of experiments (D O E )17 is a technique that can be used to analyze alternatives. Experimentation is
performed to determine statistically what variables will improve quality; for example, D O E can be used to
look for ways to deliver the same level of quality for less cost. D O E is a fast and accurate technique that
allows you to systematically change the important factors in a process and see which combinations have an
optimal impact on the project deliverables. For example, designers might use D O E to determine which
combination of materials, structure, and construction will produce the highest-quality product. Performing
D O E can help decrease the time and effort required to discover the optimal conditions in which to produce
a quality deliverable. An alternative to D O E is to perform individual experiments for each variable in a
process to assess their impacts on quality, but this can be time-consuming and can overlook interactions
among variables.

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Quality Management

Process Analysis18 Quality management can also include process analysis. Have you ever worked on
a project where some o f the activities or work packages were repeated? This often happens when projects
have multiple installations, such as a project to install software onto hundreds of computers. The lessons
learned on the first few installations are used to improve the process for the remaining installations. Though
this often happens naturally, formal process analysis should be planned in at certain points in the project
(for example, after every 10 installations). Process analysis is a part of the continuous improvement effort
on a project and focuses on identifying improvements that might be needed in project processes.

Root Cause Analysis Root cause analysis in Manage Quality seeks to identify the processes, proce­
dures, and policies within the plan that may not be working or that may need adjustment. Identifying the
root cause of a quality problem or defect helps the team determine how to prevent it from recurring.

Failure analysis is a specific type o f root cause analysis. It analyzes failed components o f deliverables or
failed processes to determine what led to that failure. Corrective action or change requests are likely
outcomes of this type of analysis.

Multicriteria Decision Analysis The project manager must facilitate a number of decisions regarding
quality. There are several decision-making techniques that may be used. Multicriteria decision analysis is a
complex method of numerically assessing options based on criteria such as time, cost, and quality. It can be
used throughout a project to help the team reach agreement regarding the best way to solve a problem or
improve quality. For example, in Manage Quality, the team may use this technique when considering
whether to adjust the quality management plan or specific processes or procedures.

A simpler decision-making technique is a prioritization matrix. A prioritization matrix can be used to

numerically assess available options, ranking them based on predetermined criteria.

Flowcharts19 In the Plan Quality Management process, we discussed flowcharts as a tool to determine
the cost of quality and identify potential quality problems. In Manage Quality, flowcharts may be used to
study the steps of a process leading up to a quality defect. It is possible that this analysis would uncover
confusion among the team or point out ways the process needs to be adjusted to make it more effective.

Affinity Diagrams We first saw this technique in the Collect Requirements process. In Manage Quality,
affinity diagrams can help you organize and group the results of root cause analysis. For example, in Control
Quality you may have determined the cause of a variance, product defect, or a deliverable not meeting
requirements. You can use this information in the Manage Quality process to determine whether a change
to the policies, procedure, and standards in the quality management plan would best address the root cause
of the problems.

Audits Imagine a team of auditors walking into your office one day to check up on you and the project.
Their job is to see if you are complying with company policies, processes, practices, and procedures as
defined in the quality management plan, and to determine whether those being used are efficient and effec­
tive. This scenario represents a quality audit, and it serves as an example o f how seriously companies take
quality. Do not think of a quality audit as a negative event. Instead, a good quality audit will look for new
lessons learned and effective practices that your project can contribute to the performing organization. The
work o f a project is not only to produce the product o f the project; it could also be said that a project should
contribute to the best practices within the organization and, therefore, make the organization better. A
quality audit may identify gaps or areas in need of improvement. Making these changes will enhance your
ability to meet quality objectives.

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 Quality Management

If you do not have a team of auditors from the quality department coming to see you on your projects, do
you take on the responsibility o f looking for opportunities to identify lessons learned and best practices on
your projects? Although quality audits are usually done by the quality department, the project manager can
lead this effort if the performing organization does not have such a department.

Design for X Design for X is another way of analyzing variables to evaluate both the effectiveness of the
quality management plan and the team’s ability to meet objectives. The X in the name Design for X can
represent an attribute o f quality, such as reliability, security, or serviceability. If the plan is not delivering the
intended results in relation to the variable being analyzed, Design for X can help determine what changes
or adjustments are needed.

Problem-Solving Think of how important this technique might be when you encounter quality prob­
lems. Gaining a good understanding of the real problem is the first step towards finding an effective and
long-lasting solution. Problem-solving can be used when considering quality improvements or to deter­
mine how best to respond to deficiencies identified in quality audits.

The following are the steps used to analyze quality (and other) problems:
1. Define the real or root problem— not what is presented to you or what appears to be the problem.
2. Analyze the problem.
3. Identify solutions.
4. Pick a solution.
5. Implement a solution.
6. Review the solution, and confirm that the solution solved the problem.

Outputs of Manage Quality PAGE 296 To understand the value of the Manage Quality
process, you need to know that it leads to the following outputs.

T6St and Evaluation Documonts Test and evaluation documents are identified or created in Manage
Quality and used in Control Quality. They provide a format with which to evaluate whether quality objec­
tives have been met. Control charts, checklists, test plans, or project documents such as
a requirements traceability matrix from scope management, may also be used here. Larger organizations, or
organizations that work on many similar projects, may develop templates for such testing and evalua­
tion work.

Quality Reports These types of reports interpret and document the results of Manage Quality and
Control Quality activities. They can present information in a number of formats. Information in quality
reports is used to identify necessary changes to plans, policies, and processes to ensure that quality require­
ments will be met throughout the life of a project.

Change Requests and Project Management Plan Updates Changes and updates to compo­
nents of the project management plan— including the quality management plan and the scope, schedule,
or cost baselines— may result from the work of this process.

Project Documents Updates Newly discovered issues will be added to the issue log. The lessons
learned register and risk register will be updated as needed.

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Quality Management

Control Quality PAGE 298 Process Control Duality

Process Group Monitoring & Controlling
Knowledge Area Quality Management
Control Quality is the process of ensuring a certain level o f quality
in a deliverable, whether it be a product, service, or result. Control
means measure, and that is the major function of the Control Quality process. Aspects ofproducts, services,
or results are measured to determine whether they meet the quality standards. This process helps ensure
customer acceptance, as it involves confirming and documenting the achievement of agreed-
upon requirements.

It is important to note that Control Quality is closely related to the previous process, Manage Quality.
Many of the tools and techniques used in Control Quality— as well as the resulting measurements— are
also used in Manage Quality, but with a different focus. Control addresses the quality of product. Defects
are detected and corrected. Manage Quality addresses the effectiveness o f quality management plans,
processes, and procedures, and whether the project is on track to meet quality objectives. Quality defects
are assumed to indicate issues with those plans, processes, and procedures.

Inputs to this process include the quality management plan, quality metrics (the agreed-upon measures of
quality), test and evaluation documents (developed in Manage Quality to be used in this process), work
performance data and deliverables (from Direct and Manage Project Work in integration management),
approved change requests from integrated change control, and project documents.

Although a project manager must be involved and concerned about quality control, a quality department
may complete much of this work in large companies. The department then informs the project manager
about quality issues through change requests, which are accompanied by any necessary documentation and
reports to detail the quality issues. The project manager must be able to read and understand quality
measurement reports.

It is during Control Quality that the height of doors in a manufacturing process or the number of bugs per
module will be measured. Quality control helps answer the following questions:
• Are the results of our work meeting the agreed-upon standards and thereby meeting project
requirements?
• What is the actual variance from the standards?
• Is the variance from standards or processes outside o f acceptable limits?
• Are people using the checklists to support meeting the metrics established for the process?
• What changes in the project should be considered?

To better understand questions relating to Control Quality, you should be familiar with the following
terms.

Mutual Exclusivity The exam may reference statistical terms such as “mutual exclusivity.” Two
events are said to be mutually exclusive if they cannot both occur in a single trial. For example, flipping a
coin once cannot result in both a head and a tail.

Probability This term refers to the likelihood that something will occur. Probability is usually
expressed as a decimal or a fraction.

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 g t Quality Management

Normal Distribution A normal distribution is the most common probability density distribu­
tion chart. It is in the shape of a bell curve and is used to measure variations (see the example in the control
chart exercise later in this chapter).

Statistical Independence Another confusing statistical term you may see on the exam is
“statistical independence.” This means the probability o f one event occurring does not affect the probability
o f another event occurring. For example, the probability of rolling a six on a die is statistically independent
from the probability of getting a five on the next roll.

Standard Deviation (or Sigma) As we’ve already discussed, one measure of a range is its
standard deviation. It denotes what would be considered a statistically stable process or output. This
concept is also sometimes stated as a measure of how far you are from the mean (not the median).
(Remember (P - 0 )/ 6 is the beta distribution formula for standard deviation, using pessimistic and opti­
mistic estimates, as described in the Schedule Management chapter.)

Control Quality Tools and Techniques There are many tools and techniques that maybe
used in this process. However, it is helpful to realize that regardless of the method used, the ultimate goal is
the same: to test (verify) that each deliverable meets the metrics and requirements as stated in the plan,
including the customer’s acceptance criteria, and that it is ready to move to the Validate Scope process.

Checklists Information about the quality of interim deliverables can be gathered using quality check­
lists. A quality checklist can be a list of items to inspect, a list of steps to be performed, or a picture of the
item to be inspected, with space to note any defects found.

In Control Quality, checklists are used to determine that all required features and functions are included,
and that they meet acceptance criteria. Checklists may be a part of the test and evaluation documents
created in Manage Quality. Checklist templates for commonly performed work, deliverables, or processes
may be organizational process assets of the organization.

Checksheets A checksheet is a type of checklist that can be used to keep track of data, such as quality
problems uncovered during inspections, as well as to document how often a particular defect occurs, as
illustrated in figure 8.3.

Defect Frequency
Too long M il
Too narrow III
Too wide Mill
Too short II

FIGURE 8 .3 C h eck sh eet

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Quality Management

Statistical Sampling Let’s think about the process of manufacturing doors. There would likely be
some allowable variation in the height and weight of the doors being manufactured. Even so, the doors
must be checked to see if they meet quality standards on the project. What if inspecting each door would
cause damage or take too much time? Then you may need to take a statistically valid sample. It is best to
take a sample o f a population if you believe there are not many defects, or if studying the entire popula­
tion would:
• Take too long
• Cost too much
• Be too destructive

The sample size and frequency of measurements are determined as part of the Plan Quality Management
process, and the actual sampling is done in Control Quality. Keep in mind that statistical sampling can also
be done for project management activities. For example, you may initially check the on-time status for 5
out of 50 of a group’s activities. If you find issues in those 5, you can assume there will be more issues in the
remaining 45 activities.

Questionnaires and Surveys Questionnaires and surveys may be used in Control Quality to gather
data on details of problems or defects, or to confirm that customers or end users are satisfied with deliver­
ables that have been deployed on the project. The results can be used to determine whether conformance
to quality has been achieved.

Performance Reviews The project manager or quality department may conduct periodic perfor­
mance reviews to formally assess how the project is doing in terms of following the quality management
plan and meeting quality requirements. Such a review involves comparing the results of control measure­
ments to metrics identified in the quality management plan. It may bring to light changes necessary to
achieve quality requirements.

Root Cause Analysis Root cause analysis is used to identify the cause of quality problems, including
defects, to determine how they can be remedied.

Inspection Inspections are used to verify that deliverables meet the requirements. Inspections may be
referred to as audits or walkthroughs, and generally include measurement of project deliverables. Quality
tools, such as checklists and control charts, may be used to capture the data. Inspections are also used to
check that previously approved changes have been made correctly, and that the changes have provided the
intended results (validated changes).

Control Charts20 Much of what the exam focuses on regarding control charts is not in the PMBOK ®
Guide. But don’t worry; the information in the following sections, along with the exercise that follows, will
help you understand this tool, even if control charts are new to you. Once you understand control charts, it
is generally easy to get questions about them right on the exam. Note that there’s an example of a control
chart in the exercise.

Control charts are established in Manage Quality, and the parameters such as the mean, specification limits,
and control limits (all defined later in this section) are determined. Control charts are used in Control
Quality to help determine if the results of a process are within acceptable limits.

To better understand the need for control charts, imagine a door manufacturer is undertaking a project to
create a new production line. To make sure the production facility will create doors that meet quality

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 Quality Management

standards, it s essential to monitor the processes and output so the new production line can become an
ongoing business operation. Would each door be the same exact height? Weight? Not likely. Instead there
is a range, however small, that is acceptable. Each door should be within the range of normal and acceptable
limits.

During the Control Quality process, samples are taken and plotted on the chart (see the small squares
shown on the control chart in the following exercise). The control chart shows whether the samples are
within acceptable limits. If the data does not fall within the acceptable range, the results are considered to
be “out of control,” which indicates a problem that needs to be handled.

A control chart can also be used to represent and monitor data on project performance, such as cost and
schedule variances.

Now that we have discussed the basic concepts of a control chart, let s look at some o f the related terms you
should know for the exam. You will see questions on this topic, but they should be fairly straightforward.
The following can be indicated on a control chart.

Upper and Lower Control Limits21 Control limits are often shown as two dashed lines on a control chart.
These limits are the acceptable range of variation of a process or measurement’s results. Control limits indi­
cate what is stable versus unstable (out of control) in the process. Every process is expected to have some
variation in its results; for example, each door manufactured will not be exactly the same size. The project
manager and stakeholders determine the appropriate upper and lower control limits for quality metrics on
a project. Data points within this range are generally thought of as “in control,” excluding the rule of seven
(described later in this section), and are an acceptable range of variation. Data points outside this range
indicate the process is out of control.

The concept of control limits is also important outside of a control chart. A project manager can have
control limits for many things. How about for a work package? Is one hour late in its delivery a problem?
How about one day? Such control limits help the project manager know when to take action.

Mean (Average) The mean is indicated by a line in the middle of the control chart. It shows the middle
o f the range of acceptable variation. A normal distribution curve represents the acceptable range o f vari­
ance around a mean, and it falls within the boundaries of the control limits.

Specification Limits22 W hile control limits represent the performing organizations standards for quality,
specification limits represent the customer’s expectations— or the contractual requirements— for perfor­
mance and quality on the project. Specification limits are characteristics of the measured process and are
not inherent. In other words, specification limits are not calculated based on the control chart; instead, they
are inputs from the customer. Therefore, they can appear either inside or outside of the control limits. To
meet the customer’s specification limits, the performing organization’s standards for quality (control limits)
must be stricter than those of the customer. Agreeing to do a project when your work does not meet the
customer’s quality standards adds waste and extra management to the project to sort out acceptable items.
Therefore, on the exam, assume that specification limits are outside the upper and lower control limits.

Out of Control The process is out of a state of statistical control under either of two circumstances:
• A data point falls outside o f the upper or lower control limit.
• There are nonrandom data points; these may be within the upper and lower control limits, such as the
rule of seven (described next).

Think of “out of control” as a lack of consistency and predictability in the process or its results.

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Quality Management

Rule of Seven23 The rule of seven is a general rule, or heuristic. It refers to a group or series of nonrandom
data points that total seven on one side of the mean. The rule of seven tells you that, although none o f these
points are outside o f the control limits, they are not random and the process is out o f control. The project
manager should investigate this type o f situation and find a cause.

Assignable Cause/Special Cause Variation24 An assignable cause or special cause variation signifies that
a process is out o f control. If there is an assignable cause or special cause variation, it means a data point, or
a series of data points, requires investigation to determine the cause of the variation. The project manager
could use additional tools, such as a cause-and-effect diagram, to try to uncover the root cause of
the variation.

Exercise Now try this exercise. On the following charts, label the examples of each of the ten
listed items by placing the item number next to its location on the chart(s). I f you are unsure, take a
guess, and then review the control chart discussion. The pictures represent two different
control charts.
W hen you are able to pick out all the items on the control charts, you should be ready to answer
questions about control charts on the exam.
N O TE: The questions on the exam relating to control charts may be easier to answer if you can
picture a control chart in your mind. It is unlikely one will be shown to you on the exam. Instead,
the exam will use the terms in situational questions, and you will need to know what they mean.
(For example: “A team member tells you that one sample is outside the lower control limit. W hat
should you do?”). This exercise is designed to help you visualize control charts and make sure you
understand these tools so you can answer questions about them.
Identify the following on the charts:

1. Upper control limit 6 . Rule o f seven

2. Lower control limit 7. Specification limits
3. Assignable cause/special cause 8 . Three sigma
4. The process is out of control 9. Six sigma
5. Normal and expected variation in the process 10. Normal distribution curve

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 Quality Management

Answer

10—Normal distribution curve

8 or 9—The range between the upper

and lower control limits; created based
on the company’s quality philosophy,
usually 3 or 6 sigma

cause/special cause

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Quality Management

Cause-and-Effect (Fishbone, Ishikawa, or Why-Why) Diagrams is it better to fix a defect or get

to the root cause o f the defect? Think about this question for a moment. The answer is that you should do
both, and a cause-and-effect diagram can help you. In Manage Quality, we discussed the application o f the
cause-and-effect diagram in determining the root cause o f quality issues relating to plans, processes, or
procedures. In Control Quality, this tool can be used to look backward at what may have contributed to
quality problems on the project, as well as to analyze the impact o f defects on the quality and acceptability
o f a deliverable.

Figure 8.4 shows the defect “system will not install” on the right and then lists the potential causes, such as
hardware issues, software issues, etc. Various subcauses of each potential cause are also listed in an effort to
find the root cause of the defect.

Conflicting systems Software

System
will not
install

FIGURE 8.4 Cause-and-effect diagram

Examples of phrasing the exam may use to describe cause-and-effect diagrams include the following:

• A creative way to look at the causes of a problem

• Helps stimulate thinking, organize thoughts, and generate discussion

Histograms As shown in figure 8.5, a histogram shows data in the form of bars or columns. A typical
histogram presents data in no particular order and without reference to time. The results of measurements
taken in Control Quality are displayed on a histogram to determine the problems that need the most imme­
diate attention or that are most likely to prevent the project from achieving its quality requirements. The
Manage Quality process will analyze these problems and defects to determine if the cause is related to
processes or the quality management plan.

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FIGURE 8.5 Histogram

Pareto Charts25 A Pareto diagram or Pareto chart is a commonly used type of histogram that arranges the
results from most frequent to least frequent to help identify which root causes are resulting in the most
problems. Joseph Juran adapted Vilfredo Pareto’s 80/20 rule to create the 80/20 principle (also known as
the Pareto Principle), which states that 80 percent of problems are due to 20 percent of the root causes.
Addressing the root cause of the most frequent problems makes the greatest impact on quality.

In Plan Quality Management, you can identify potential problems (using, for example, historical
information from past projects) and document them on a Pareto diagram, as shown in figure 8 .6 . In Control
Quality, you measure the data and represent it on the diagram to help analyze the situation and determine
where to focus corrective action.

y
10 0 ___
80 y ^ ___
60 y

40 y
y
20 y

■...1.... y -----,--- 1
0
Too long Too wide Too narrow Too short

FIGURE 8.6 Pareto diagram

Scatter Diagrams As discussed in Manage Quality, a scatter diagram is used to determine the relation­
ship between variables and the quality of the results. In Control Quality, a scatter diagram can be used to
compare actual results to what was anticipated, and to estimate and forecast future outcomes of the process.

A scatter diagram tracks two variables to determine their relationship. Imagine that our door manufacturer
has a project to develop a new painted door product line. Scatter diagrams may be used to determine the
relationship of independent variables, such as paint quantity, dryer fan speed, and door weight, to the
dependent variable of drying time, or to correlate defects to other variables in the process.

A regression line (or trend line) is calculated to show the correlation of variables, and can then be used for
estimating and forecasting. Figure 8.7 depicts the possible resulting patterns: a proportional or positive
correlation of paint quantity to drying time, an inverse or negative correlation o f dryer fan speed to drying
time, and no correlation between door weight and drying time.

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Quality Management

i i i i
60 -
_ Dependent <
- variable

(minutes)
• * '* ' \

i
_ Regression

i ii i i
| 50I
S :
-
B s 40J
- +3 -
BO - op -
l" "■ i 3° : ‘>s30 -
-o _ -o “
- O - o -
Q 20- o 20-
_ Independent
- / variable
- i------ r ----- 1------ 1------ 1------ ;------ 1— *; ------1------ 1------ 1------ 1------ — i------ 1------- 1------ 1-------:------ 1------ 1------ 1------ 1------ [------ 1------ 1------ — i----- 1--------1------ ;------ 1------ 1------ 1-------1------ 1-------1-------1------ 1
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 15001600 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 12001300 1400 1500 1600
Door paint spray quantity (mL/sqm) Dryer fan speed (rpm) Door weight (kg)

Positive correlation Negative correlation No correlation

FIGURE 8.7 Scatter diagrams

Meetings Lessons learned or retrospectives are meetings conducted as part o f Control Quality to assess
what was done right and what could have been done differently to make the project more successful.

Approved change request reviews are meetings in which the team evaluates whether approved change
requests have been completed, and whether they have returned the results intended.

Outputs of Control Quality PAGE 305 W hen you have completed the Control Quality pro­
cess, you will have the following outputs:
• Measurements
• Validated changes
• Work performance information
• Updates to the project management plan (including the quality management plan) and project
documents (including the issue log, test and evaluation documents, risk register, and lessons
learned register)
• Change requests, including recommended corrective and preventive actions and defect repair
• Verified deliverables

Putting It All Together Do you think you understand quality management now? If not, don’t
worry; we are not finished with this chapter yet. The following exercises will help you review the informa­
tion you have learned. Take this opportunity to solidify your understanding of what quality management is
and how it fits into the overall project management process.

Exercise List the specific actions required to ensure quality on the project.

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 Quality

Answer There are a lot of possible answers. Did you come up with these?
• Review the project management plan, particularly the project baselines, and relevant project
documents as they relate to quality on the project.
• Make sure you know and understand the customer s definition of quality.
• Identify the desired levels of performance in the product and components of the product.
• Identify at what level you should control the project (for example, the work package, activity,
or a more detailed level).
• Identify any quality standards and processes that are applicable to the project.
• Identify the required level of quality for project management activities.
• Determine the quality standards and processes to use, when, and on what parts of the project.
• Set standards to reach the level of desired performance for activities and the project.
• Set metrics to measure quality from the customer s and the organizations perspective.
• Decide what you will do to make sure the processes are followed and the standards are met.
• Determine how you will improve the processes on the project.
• Test the validity of assumptions before they result in problems.
• Make sure team members understand what “quality” means for their work.
• Review problems, errors, and complaints to determine what can be done to prevent them from
reoccurring on the project.

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Quality Management

• Have the team follow planned efforts to evaluate the project to look for quality improvements.
• Inspect work as it is being done, not after.
• Perform quality reviews.
• Measure performance against standards.
• Hold meetings, issue reports, measure, and perform calculations to evaluate variances.
• Reassess the quality standards.
• Evaluate the effectiveness of the quality control system.
• Manage quality with the same effort as time, cost, or scope.
• Request changes, including corrective and preventive actions and defect repairs.
• Update organizational process assets with information and data learned from process
improvement and control efforts.
• Include quality issues in lessons learned.
• Feed lessons learned back into the project.

Understanding the Tools and Techniques Used in Quality M anagem ent as

you have read through this chapter, have you found yourself asking questions like, “Now, when are all these
tools and techniques used?” or “What are the differences between the three parts of the quality manage­
ment process again?” People tend to struggle with these concepts. The following exercises will help.

Exercise Take a moment to research in this book the different tools and techniques that are
created or used in each of the quality management processes. Then complete the following table,
indicating the process in which each tool is used. Remember that some tools and techniques are
used in more than one quality management process. Think about the ways they are used for different
purposes in each process.

Used in Used in Used in

Plan Quality Manage Control
Tool Management Quality Quality
Affinity diagrams
Alternatives analysis
Benchmarking
Brainstorming
Cause-and-effect diagrams
Checklists
Checksheets
Control charts
Cost of quality
Cost-benefit analysis
Design for X
Document analysis
Flowcharts

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 Quality Management

Used in Used in Used in

Plan Quality Manage Control
Tool Management Quality Quality
Histograms
Inspection
Interviews
Logical data model
Matrix diagrams
Meetings
Mind mapping
Multicriteria decision analysis
Performance reviews
Problem-solving
Process analysis
Questionnaires and surveys
Root cause analysis
Scatter diagrams
Statistical sampling
Test and inspection planning
Testing/product evaluations

A nsw er

Used in Used in Used in

Plan Quality Manage Control
Tool Management Quality Quality
Affinity diagrams X
Alternatives analysis X
Benchmarking X
Brainstorming X
Cause-and-effect diagrams X X

Checklists X X

Checksheets X

Control charts X

Cost o f quality X
Cost-benefit analysis X
Design for X X
Document analysis X
Flowcharts X X
Histograms X X

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Quality Management

Used in Used in Used in

Plan Quality Manage Control
Tool Management Quality Quality
Inspection X
Interviews X
Logical data model X
Matrix diagrams X X
Meetings X X
Mind mapping X
Multicriteria decision analysis X X
Performance reviews X
Problem-solving X
Process analysis X
Questionnaires and surveys X
Root cause analysis X X
Scatter diagrams X X
Statistical sampling X
Test and inspection planning X
Testing/product evaluations X

TRICKS Here is a trick: If the situation is looking forward in time, it is most likely a planning function. If
OF THE it is looking back in time at project results, it is most likely part of quality control. If it is looking
TRADE back in time at processes and procedures, it is most likely part o f managing quality.

Exercise Now take what you have learned and see if you can apply it in a different way. This
exercise should help prepare you for questions on the exam, regardless of how they are written.

What Part of the

What Tool/ Technique Quality Management
Situation Is Being Referred To? Process Are You In?
1 Looking at the project practices of
comparable projects
2 Measuring 4 o f the doors produced,
rather than all 400
3 Evaluating the factors that influence
particular variables in a product or
process
4 Analyzing a chart o f problems to find the
most frequent one(s) to determine
whether processes need to be improved

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 Quality Management

What Part of the

What Tool/ Technique Quality Management
Situation Is Being Referred To? Process Are You In?
5 Comparing the expense of quality efforts
to the return on that investment
6 Determining what will be an acceptable
range of performance
7 Comparing what was done to what was
documented in the plans
8 Graphically representing a process to
determine where a process that is
achieving low-quality results might need
adjustment
9 Taking measurements and comparing
them to the upper and lower thresholds
o f acceptable variance
10 Collecting data about defects discovered
during inspection ....................................
11 Analyzing a graphic displaying issues that
might have caused a defect, to determine
whether the proper process was followed
12 Showing data in the form o f bars to
measure and plot how frequently a
problem occurred ...................
13 Collecting many data points to look at
the pattern of relationships or correlation
between two variables .......................
14 Using a bar chart to show how many
problems occurred for each cause and
arranging them according to the
frequency at which the problems
occurred
15 Creating a list of items to be checked
during inspections
16 Reviewing a graphic displaying issues or
potential issues that might have led to a
defect or problem
17 Examining a work product to make sure
it meets standards

Answer Remember that the tools and techniques can be described in many ways on the exam.
Get used to the idea that the exam will ask questions indirectly, and be able to differentiate between
the tools or techniques and their uses.

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Quality Management

What Part of the

What Tool/ Technique Quality Management
Situation Is Being Referred To? Process Are You In?
1 Looking at the project practices of Benchmarking Plan Quality
comparable projects Management
2 Measuring 4 of the doors produced, Statistical sampling Control Quality
rather than all 400
3 Evaluating the factors that influence Design of experiments Manage Quality
particular variables in a product or (part of process
process analysis)
4 Analyzing a chart o f problems to find the Histograms Manage Quality
most frequent one(s) to determine
whether processes need to be improved
5 Comparing the expense of quality efforts Cost-benefit analysis Plan Quality
to the return on that investment Management
6 Determining what will be an acceptable Control charts Manage Quality
range of performance
7 Comparing what was done to what was Checklists Control Quality
documented in the plans
8 Graphically representing a process to Flowcharts Manage Quality
determine where a process that is
achieving low-quality results might need
adjustment
9 Taking measurements and comparing Control charts Control Quality
them to the upper and lower thresholds
of acceptable variance
10 Collecting data about defects discovered Checksheets Control Quality
during inspection
11 Analyzing a graphic displaying issues that Cause-and-effect Manage Quality
might have caused a defect to determine diagrams
whether the proper process was followed

12 Showing data in the form of bars to Histograms Control Quality

measure and plot how frequently a
problem occurred
13 Collecting many data points to look at Scatter diagrams Control Quality
the pattern of relationships or correlation
between two variables
14 Using a bar chart to show how many Histograms (Pareto Control Quality
problems occurred for each cause and diagram)
arranging them according to the
frequency at which the problems
occurred
15 Creating a list of items to be checked Checklists Manage Quality
during inspections

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 Quality Management

W hat Part of the

W hat Tool/Technique Quality M anagem ent
Situation Is Being Referred To? Process Are You In?
16 Reviewing a graphic displaying issues or Cause-and-effect Control Quality
potential issues that might have led to a diagrams
defect or problem
17 Examining a work product to make sure Inspection Control Quality
it meets standards

TRICKS Understanding the Differences between the Three Parts of the

OF THE
TRADE Quality M anagem ent Process Are you still unsure about the difference between
Plan Quality Management, Manage Quality and Control Quality? Think through what you
have learned in this chapter, and see if you can recreate the chart shown earlier by filling in the following
table.

Plan Quality Management Manage Quality Control Quality

Process Group

High-Level Description of What Each Process Focuses On

More Detailed Description of What Each Process Focuses On

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Quality Management

Plan Quality Management Manage Quality Control Quality

W hen you are finished, checkyour answers against the chart on pages 326-327. Having a clear understanding
of what happens in each process will make it easier for you to answer quality-related questions on the exam.
You will still have to read the questions carefully to determine which quality management process is being
described.

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 Quality Management

Practice Exam

1. When a product or service completely meets a customer s requirements:

A. Quality is achieved.
B. The cost of quality is high.
C. The cost of quality is low.
D. The customer pays the minimum price.

2. To what does the following definition refer? “A type of analysis focused on finding the point at which
the benefits or revenue to be received from improving quality equals the incremental cost to achieve
that quality.”
A. Quality control analysis
B. Marginal analysis
C. Standard quality analysis
D. Conformance analysis

3. W ho is ultimately responsible for quality management on the project?

A. The project engineer
B. The project manager
C. The quality manager
D. The team member

4. A project has faced major difficulties in the quality of its deliverables. Management now states that
quality is the most important project constraint. If another problem with quality were to occur, what
would be the best thing for the project manager to do?
A. Fix the problem as soon as possible.
B. Allow the schedule to slip by cutting cost.
C. Allow cost to increase by fixing the root cause of the problem.
D. Allow risk to increase by cutting cost.

5. A manager notices that a project manager is holding a meeting with some of the team and some
stakeholders to discuss the quality of the project. The project schedule has been compressed, and the
CPI is 1.1. The team has worked hard on the project and has been rewarded according to the reward
system the project manager put in place. Overall, there is a strong sense of team. The manager suggests
that the project manager does not have enough time to hold meetings about quality when the schedule
is so compressed. Which of the following best describes why the manager is wrong?
A. Improved quality leads to increased productivity, increased cost effectiveness, and decreased
cost risk.
B. Improved quality leads to increased productivity, decreased cost effectiveness, and increased
cost risk.
C. Improved quality leads to increased productivity, increased cost effectiveness, and increased
cost risk.
D. Improved quality leads to increased productivity, decreased cost effectiveness, and decreased
cost risk.

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Quality Management

6 . Quality is:
A. Meeting and exceeding the customer s expectations
B. Adding extras to make the customer happy
C. The degree to which the project meets requirements
D. Conformance to management s objectives

7. All the following are tools and techniques of Control Quality except:
A. Inspection
B. Cost o f quality
C. Histogram
D. Cause-and-effect diagram

8 . A project manager is experiencing a great deal o f frustration because a lot of rework has been required.
It seems as though the team has significant differences of opinion related to interpretation o f the
requirements. The project manager is trying to determine what changes need to be made to meet the
quality requirements and reduce future rework. He seeks the advice o f his manager, who asks if he has
created a histogram. Histograms help the project manager:
A. Focus on the most critical issues to improve quality.
B. Focus on stimulating thinking.
C. Analyze the cause of a quality problem.
D. Determine if a process is out o f control.

9. A control chart helps the project manager:

A. Focus on the most critical issues to improve quality.
B. Focus on stimulating thinking.
C. Analyze the cause of a quality problem.
D. Determine if a process is functioning within established metrics.

10. Testing the entire population would:

A. Take too long
B. Provide more information than wanted
C. Be mutually exclusive
D. Show many defects

11. Cost has been determined to be the highest priority constraint on a project to design and produce a
new tool that will be used in restaurant kitchens. The project team has included random sampling of
these tools in their quality plan. Although cost is a key factor, the product must also meet high quality
standards. All the following are examples of the cost of nonconformance except:
A. Rework
B. Quality training
C. Scrap
D. Warranty costs

12 . Standard deviation is a measure of:

A. How far the estimate is from the highest estimate
B. How far the measurement is from the mean
C. How correct the sample is
D. How much time remains in the project

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 Quality Management

13. All the following result from quality audits except:

A. Determination of whether project activities comply with organizational policies
B. Improved processes to increase productivity
C. Creation of quality metrics
D. Confirmation of the implementation of approved change requests

14. A control chart shows seven data points in a row on one side of the mean. What should the project
manager do?
A. Perform a design o f experiments.
B. Adjust the chart to reflect the new mean.
C. Find an assignable cause.
D. Nothing. This is the rule of seven and can be ignored.

15. You are managing a project in a just in time environment. This will require more attention because the
amount of inventory in such an environment is generally:
A. 45 percent
B. 10 percent
C. 12 percent
D. 0 percent

16. There are several executing activities underway on your project. You are beginning to get concerned
about the accuracy of the progress reporting your team members are doing. How could you verify
whether there is a problem?
A. Perform a quality audit.
B. Create risk quantification reports.
C. Perform regression analysis.
D. Perform Monte Carlo analysis.

17. A project manager and team from a firm that designs railroad equipment are tasked to design a machine
to load stone onto railroad cars. The design allows for 2 percent spillage, amounting to over two tons
of spilled rock per day. In which of the following does the project manager document this for
the project?
A. Quality management plan
B. Quality policy
C. Control charts
D. Quality audit documentation

18. During a team meeting, the team adds a specific area of extra work to the project because they have
determined it would benefit the customer. What is wrong in this situation?
A. The team is not following the project management plan.
B. These efforts shouldn’t be done in meetings.
C. Nothing. This is how to meet and exceed customer expectations.
D. Nothing. The project manager is in control of the situation.

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Quality Management

19. The project team has created a plan for how they will implement the quality policy, addressing
responsibilities, procedures, and other details. If this plan changes during the project, which of the
following plans will also change?
A. Quality assurance plan
B. Quality management plan
C. Project management plan
D. Quality control plan

20. You are a project manager for a major information systems project. Someone from the quality
department comes to see you about beginning a quality audit of your project. The team, already under
pressure to complete the project as soon as possible, objects to the audit. You should explain to the
team that the purpose of a quality audit is:
A. To check whether measurements of project deliverables are within specification limits
B. To check if the customer is following the quality process
C. To identify inefficient and ineffective policies
D. To check the accuracy of costs submitted by the team

21. You are in the middle of a major facility construction project. The structural steel is already in place,
and the heating conduits are being put into place when a senior manager informs you that he is worried
the project will not meet the quality standards. What should you do in this situation?
A. Assure senior management that during the Plan Quality Management process, it was determined
that the project would meet the quality standards.
B. Analogously estimate future results.
C. Involve the quality team.
D. Check the results from the last quality management plan.

22. You are asked to select tools and techniques to supplement existing quality control activities. W hich of
the following would not be appropriate for this purpose?
A. Performance reviews
B. Statistical sampling
C. Pareto diagrams
D. Focus groups

23. The new software installation project is in progress. The project manager is working with the quality
department to improve stakeholders’ confidence that the project will satisfy the quality standards.
W hich o f the following must they have before they start this process?
A. Quality problems
B. Quality improvement
C. Quality control measurements
D. Rework

24. A project manager has just taken over the project from another project manager during project
executing. The previous project manager created a project budget, determined communications
requirements, and went on to the complete work packages task. What should the new project manager
do next?
A. Coordinate completion of work packages.
B. Identify quality standards.
C. Begin the Identify Risks process.
D. Validate scope.

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 Quality Management

25. An experienced project manager is working with a team chartered to build a bridge near the Arctic
Circle. In addition to the usual concerns of safety and longevity, the team must also take into account
the extreme weather conditions and their potential impact on the bridge. The sponsor meets with the
project manager regarding her progress on this work. The sponsor is pleased to learn that the project
manager is planning to conduct a design of experiments as part of quality planning. Design of
experiments:
A. Identifies which variables will have the most influence on a quality outcome
B. Helps to identify the root cause of quality problems
C. Determines what a quality outcome is
D. Determines methods to be used for research and development

26. At the end o f the project, the project manager reports that the project has added four unexpected areas
of functionality and three areas of performance. The customer has expressed satisfaction with the
project. W hat does this mean in terms of the success of the project?
A. The project was an unqualified success.
B. The project was unsuccessful because it was gold plated.
C. The project was unsuccessful because the customer being happy means they would have paid
more for the work.
D. The project was successful because the team had a chance to learn new areas of functionality and
the customer was satisfied.

27. During project executing, a project team member informs the project manager that a work package has
not met the quality metric, and that she believes it is not possible to meet it. The project manager
meets with all concerned parties to analyze the situation. W hich part of the quality management
process is the project manager involved in?
A. Manage Quality
B. Perform Integrated Change Control
C. Control Quality
D. Plan Quality Management

28. The project manager notices that the project activities being completed by one department are all
taking slightly longer than planned. To date, none of the activities in the work packages have been on
the critical path. The project manager is bothered by the problem, since four of the next five critical
path activities are being completed by this department.
After making three calls, the project manager is finally able to talk with the department manager to
determine what is going on. The conversation is slow because both speak different native languages,
and they are trying to converse in French, a shared language. To make communication easier, the
project manager frequently asks the department manager to repeat back what has been said.
The department manager communicates that his staff is following a company policy that requires
two levels of testing. During the conversation, the department manager also makes a comment that
leads the project manager to believe the policy may include excessive work. This is the fourth time the
project manager has heard such a comment. W hat is the best thing to do?
A. Create a better communications management plan that requires one universal language on the
project and have translators readily available on a moment’s notice.
B. Contact someone else in the department who speaks the project manager s native language better
to confirm the department manager’s opinion.
C. Find out if the upcoming activities should be reestimated.
D. Work on increasing the effectiveness of the performing organization by recommending
continuous improvement of the policy in question.

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Quality Management

29. As the project manager, you are preparing your quality management plan. You are looking for a tool
that can demonstrate the relationship between events and their resulting effects. You want to use this
tool to depict the events that cause a negative effect on quality. W hich of the following is the best
choice for accomplishing your objective?
A. Scatter diagram
B. Pareto diagram
C. Why-why diagram
D. Control chart

30. Which of the following explains why quality should be planned in and not inspected in?
A. It reduces quality and is less expensive.
B. It improves quality and is more expensive.
C. It reduces quality and is more expensive.
D. It improves quality and is less expensive.

31. Work on a project is ongoing when the project manager overhears two workers arguing over what a set
of instructions means. The project manager investigates and discovers that the instructions for the
construction of the concrete footings currently being poured were poorly translated between the
different languages in use on the project. W hich of the following is the best thing for the project
manager to do first?
A. Get the instructions translated by a more experienced party.
B. Look for quality impacts of the poor translation of the instructions for the footings.
C. Bring the issue to the attention of the team, and ask them to look for other translation problems.
D. Inform the sponsor o f the problem in the next project report.

32. While performing quality planning for the design and manufacture of a new medical device, the team
has identified the need to keep variances to a minimum because the end product must be o f the highest
quality possible. They are researching the practices of comparable projects for ideas on how to achieve
this requirement. The team is using which of the following techniques?
A. Benchmarking
B. Pareto analysis
C. Design for X
D. Cost-benefit analysis

33. W hich of the following would generally lead to the least amount of quality improvement?
A. Total quality management
B. Quality planning
C. Implementing an ISO 9000 standard
D. Inspection

34. In a meeting to gain approval of the quality management plan, a stakeholder points out what he believes
to be an error in the plan. He notes that the plan includes using some of the same techniques in more
than one o f the quality processes. W hich of the following quality management techniques can be used
in two of the three quality management processes?
A. Cause-and-effect diagrams
B. Interviews
C. Checksheets
D. Logical data model

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Answers

1. Answer A
Explanation As a general rule, one cannot say that quality (as defined in the question) is either of high
or low cost. Quality provides what the customer wanted, which may not be the highest or lowest cost.
W hen a product or service completely meets a customer s needs, quality is achieved.

2. Answer B
Explanation This is the definition of marginal analysis. Know the term so you will be able to answer
questions that deal with this concept. The other choices may sound good, but they are made-up terms.

3. Answer B
Explanation Although each person working on the project should check their own work, the project
manager ultimately has the responsibility for quality on the project as a whole.

4. Answer C
Explanation If a problem with quality were to occur again, many people would opt to fix the problem
as soon as possible. It is proactive, but some other project constraint(s) must change to accommodate
fixing the root cause of the problem. It may not be necessary to allow the schedule to slip, because the
project manager mightbe able to compress the schedule in other areas. Cutting cost does not necessarily
cause the schedule to slip, nor would that necessarily fix the problem at hand. Allowing risk to increase
by cutting cost is not the best choice, because a quality problem is most likely to create additional cost,
rather than cut cost. Allowing the cost to increase by fixing the root cause of the problem addresses
both the need to find the cause and the probable impact of dealing with the problem.

5. Answer A
Explanation Did you notice there is a lot of data not relevant to answering the question? Expect
distractors to appear in many questions on the exam. Quality efforts should produce a decrease rather
than an increase in cost risk as a result of less rework. Quality efforts should also provide increased
cost effectiveness due to less rework. This leaves the best answer: Improved quality leads to increased
productivity, increased cost effectiveness, and decreased cost risk.

6 . Answer C
Explanation There can be a cost impact (as well as an impact on other proj ect constraints) of exceeding
expectations or adding extras. Quality is the degree to which the project meets requirements.

7. Answer B
Explanation Inspection, histograms, and cause-and-effect diagrams are all tools that can be used in
Control Quality. Cost of quality is part of Plan Quality Management, making sure the project is not
spending too much to achieve a particular level of quality.

8 . Answer A
Explanation Cause-and-effect (or why-why) diagrams are often used to stimulate thinking and to
analyze the cause o f quality problems. Determining whether a process is out of control is a function of
control charts. Only focusing on critical issues to improve quality relates to histograms.

9. Answer D
Explanation Focusing on the most critical issues to improve quality relates to histograms. Stimulating
thinking and analyzing the cause o f quality problems relate to cause-and-effect diagrams. Only
determining if a process is functioning within established metrics relates to control charts.

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10. Answer A
Explanation The length o f time it takes to test a whole population is one of the reasons to test a
sample o f the deliverables, rather than all of them. The sample size and frequency of measurements
are determined as part of the Plan Quality Management process, and the actual sampling is done in
Control Quality.

11. Answer B
Explanation Quality training is a cost of conformance to quality. All the other choices are costs o f
nonconformance to quality.

12. Answer B
Explanation Standard deviation is the measurement of a range around the mean.

13. Answer C
Explanation Quality metrics are an output of the Plan Quality Management process. They are an
input to the Manage Quality process, the process in which quality audits take place.

14. Answer C
Explanation The rule of seven applies here. If you have seven data points in a row on the same side of
the mean, statistically the mean has shifted, calling for action to correct the problem.

15. Answer D
Explanation In a just in time environment, supplies are delivered when you need them and not
before. Therefore, you have little or no inventory.

16. Answer A
Explanation Quality audits are a necessary part of the Manage Quality process. They help you assess
whether the processes are being followed correctly on the project.

17. Answer A
Explanation The defined level o f acceptable spillage would be documented in the quality management
plan. The quality policy and control charts are components of a quality management plan. Quality
audit documentation is created in Manage Quality, while the work of the project is being done. The
amount o f acceptable spillage would have been determined in the Plan Quality Management process.

18. Answer A
Explanation This is an example of gold plating. The team should provide only what was included in
the approved project management plan. The team does not know if their change will provide benefit
to the customer. Any such changes must be evaluated in integrated change control. Instead of adding
extras, the team should focus their efforts on fulfilling the requirements.

19. Answer C
Explanation The plan described is the quality management plan. Since the quality management plan
is included in the project management plan, changing the quality management plan will also change
the project management plan. The other choices are not actual plans.

20. Answer C
Explanation Control charts show whether measurements of project deliverables are within
specification limits, and are used in the Control Quality process. The seller cannot generally control or
review the customer’s quality process. Checking the accuracy of costs submitted by the team is more
representative of a cost audit than a quality audit, so that option cannot be the best choice. Manage
Quality, of which an audit is part, focuses on processes, procedures, and standards. One purpose o f a
quality audit is to identify inefficient and ineffective policies.

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21. Answer C
Explanation Assuring management that it was determined in planning that the project would meet
quality standards is not productive, since it does not solve the problem. An analogous estimate looks
at the past history of other projects. This would not be appropriate to determine how the current
project is going. The quality management plan does not provide results. The quality team could help to
determine whether the team is following the correct process to satisfy the relevant quality standards.

22. Answer D
Explanation Focus groups are a tool o f the Collect Requirements process, and would not be useful in
Control Quality. The other choices are all tools and techniques of the Control Quality process.

23. Answer C
Explanation Although quality problems may lead to quality improvement efforts, they are not a
prerequisite for quality improvement. Quality improvement is a result o f Manage Quality and Control
Quality, not an input. Rework (or requested defect repair) can be an output of Control Quality. That
leaves only quality control measurements, which are inputs to the Manage Quality process.

24. Answer B
Explanation Completion of work packages is done after project planning. Since Validate Scope
is a monitoring and controlling process, that is not next. Identify Risks sounds like a good choice;
however, identifying quality standards occurs before the Identify Risks process. You may have
misread the question and assumed communication planning was complete, but notice it only says
that communications requirements have been determined. Communications planning still needs to be
completed, as do other aspects o f planning. Identify quality standards is the best answer choice offered.

25. Answer A
Explanation Design of experiments is performed in quality planning, and uses experimentation
to determine statistically what variables will improve quality. It allows the project manager to focus
attention on the factors that are most important. Design o f experiments is also used in Manage Quality
to help decrease the time and effort required to discover the optimal conditions in which to produce
a quality deliverable.

26. Answer B
Explanation The unexpected functionality reported by the project manager is outside the scope of
the project. Adding extra functionality is the definition of gold plating. Gold plating a project wastes
time and probably cost. It makes the project unsuccessful.

27. Answer C
Explanation Measuring is part of the Control Quality process. Perform Integrated Change Control
is an integration management process. It is likely that the scenario described will result in a change
request submitted to Integrated Change Control.

28. Answer D
Explanation Changing the communications management plan may not be needed, and it does not
deal with the problem at hand— the policy that is slowing things down. Confirming the department
manager’s opinion with someone else in the department is not the best choice, as the project manager
already has heard the opinion on many other occasions. It is already confirmed. Determining whether
upcoming activities should be reestimated is just being reactive. A good project manager will find
the root cause and deal with that, even if it means attempting to improve the company’s policies
and processes. Yes, recommending improvement of the policy is the best answer. This is continuous
improvement. Because there are several activities affected by the policy, it would best serve the project
to get to the root cause of the problem and solve it.

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29. Answer C
Explanation All reports and diagrams are communications tools. This question asks you to pick the
most appropriate quality tool to help communications. A why-why diagram, also called a cause-and-
effect or Ishikawa diagram, is more appropriate than a Pareto diagram since you are trying to determine
the causes. Once causes are known and you have data on occurrences, the data can be displayed in a
Pareto diagram.

30. Answer D
Explanation Look for the proactive approach. W hen we plan for quality, we define the appropriate
level of quality needed, which will improve quality overall and will likely be less expensive in the long
run. N O TE: You may spend more initially on determining the right level of quality and doing the work
to produce the required level of quality, but you will save through reduced rework, waste, and scrap.

31. Answer B
Explanation Although all these choices are correct things to do, the question asks what to do first.
W hat is the most immediate problem? Getting the instructions translated by a more experienced party
could be done, but it does not address the critical concern o f the footings that have already been poured
according to the poorly translated instructions. Asking the team to look for other translation issues is
an excellent idea. However, it does not address the immediate problem. Informing the sponsor is also
not taking action to solve the problem. Isn’t it most urgent to find out whether the concrete footings
meet your project requirements? Are they adequate? Only the option of looking for quality impacts of
the poor translation will help you determine that.

32. Answer A
Explanation The team is using the benchmarking technique to review methodologies used by
comparable projects or organizations to establish quality metrics and acceptable variance ranges, and
to measure quality.

33. Answer D
Explanation Quality cannot be inspected in; you must plan for and execute a quality strategy.
Increasing inspection is the only answer that is not proactive.

34. Answer A
Explanation Interviews are used in Plan Quality Management to identify existing standards,
processes, and metrics— or to create new ones. A logical data model is also used in Plan Quality
Management. Its purpose is to help the team understand the requirements, and define the appropriate
quality management processes. Checksheets are used in Control Quality to track data such as the type
and frequency of quality problems uncovered during inspections. Cause-and-effect diagrams are used
in Manage Quality to confirm that the policies, procedures, and metrics are adequate to produce the
required level of quality in project deliverables. In Control Quality, cause-and-effect diagrams can be
used to uncover the root cause of a variation in the quality of deliverables.

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