88 PRACTICAL TESTED DIUDE- GIREDITS RORMIIHIE Gwe: GONSTHOE TUL B.B.BABANI SYLVANIA ELECTRIC PRODUCTS INC.,38 PRACTICAL TESTED DIODE CIREUITS for the HOME CONSTRUCTOR by Bernard B. Babani BABANI PRESS The Grampians Western Gate, London WS.Babani Press Handbook No. 9 First Published April 1972 We invite all authors, whether new or well established, to submit manuscripts for pub- lication. The manuscripts may deal with any facet of electronics but should always be practical. Any circuit diagrams that may be included should have been thoroughly checked by the author. If you are considering trying your hand at writing this type of book we suggest that you let us have a short sum- mary of the subject you intend to cover. We will then be able to let you know the size of book required and perhaps give you some advice on presentation. BERNARD B. BABANI © 1972 Printed by Krisson Printing Limited, London. for Babani Press, The Publishing division of Babani Trading and Finance Co. Ltd., The Grampians, Western Gate, London, W.6 CONTENTS ‘Simple Crystal Receiver Push-Pull Crystal Receiver Band Pass Crystal Receiver Crystal Video Detector for T.V Crystal D.C. Restorer Second Detector FM Detector Noise Limiter ‘Transmitter Failure Alarm Low Power Frequency Doubler Carrier Operated Inverse Feedback Circuit Premodulation Speech Clipper Low Voltage Bias Supply ‘Simple Side Band Generator D.C. Diode Amplifier Voltage Multiplier Cireuits Audio Frequency Meter Frequency Tripler 2 Way Relay Circuit Standing Wave Indicator Field Strength Meter AF - RF Ammeter External Modulator for Signal Generators RF Probe ‘Audio Extractor ‘Tone Generator ‘Audio Oseillator Diode Wave Shaper AP - RF Wattmeter Sensitive AF - RF Sgnal Tracer eosataun 2 13 13 “4 15 16 wr 18 19 20 21 2 23 24 4 26 ra 1 29Distortion Meter Selective Phone Circuit Modulation and Carrier Shift Meter ‘Mode! Contral Receiver Crystal Voltage Meter Interval Timer D.C. Polarity Checker Inductive Kick Quencher for Relays Spark Quenchers Charger for Dry Batteries, Low Current Relay Circuit Door Chime "Pepper" Circuit Using Diode as Photocell Electronic Metronome Wired Radio Control Relay System Stroboscope Electro Plater Ammeter - Wattmeter Electronic Door Lock General Diode Hints 29 2 33 35 35 36 3 31 38 39 0 0 41 41 2 4 5 46 a a RECEIVERS AND RECEIVER APPLICATIONS 1.1 SIMPLE CRYSTAL RECEIVER. The crystal receiver has had universal appeal to a multitude of radio experimenters since the early days of wireless. Its continued fascination, even at present vhen tubes ‘due to the fact that the crystal detector re: gives remarkably clear and lifelike repro- iple in principle and easy to are inexpensive, has been quires no power supply and ; duction. Furthermore, a crystal set is sim wild. vr audio output of a crystal set is low. This means that a good, i ist be used in most localities noun LAND La ARE THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OF ANTENNA Ebtlwird prealeney awce oF 8401750 Ke, Figure I-I. SIMPLE CRYSTAL RECEIVER Figure 1-1 shows one of the simplest circuits which may be employed to receive broadcast stations. A set of this type may be built in a single evening by an inexperienced person. While the reader might wind his own coils, the manufactured coil specified in Figure 1-1 is so low in price as to make the labor of making the coil at home unattractive. ‘The set covers the standard broadcast band. That is, 540 to 1750 ke which is actually a little more than the broadcast band limits. AN! tuning is done with the single 365-ufd variable capacitor. Under ordinary conditions, the range of the receiver will not be greater than about 25 miles. Loudest signals will be picked up from the most powerful stations. Best signal strength will be obtained when the antenna is outside, between 40 and 100 feet long, and situated as high as practicable above the ground and other objects. A good ground, such as 8 tight connection to a cold water pipe, might be used. 1.2. PUSH-PULL CRYSTAL RECEIVER. The crystal receiver cir cuits shown in Figure 1-2 deliver somewhat louder signals than the simpler sets described in Section 1.1, and separates stations more effec: tively 5‘The improved operation of this circuit is obtained by use of double tuning (by means of tuning capacitors C, and C2) and to erystal diodes in a full-wave detector circuit. If desired, a Sylvania Type 1N35.duo- diode unit may be used in the speci sven in Figure 1-2. Fon ratavences Rromonee, gente | menage COILS WOUND SAME pIRECTION COIL FORMS ‘cewren aP Figure 1-2. PUSHPULL CRYSTAL RECEIVER Operation of the set is not complicated. (1) If the station to be re- ceived operates on a frequency lower than 850 ke, close switch S. If the station frequency is 850 ke or higher, open the switch. (2) Tune-in the station closely by adjusting capacitor Cy. (3) Finally, adjust eapaci tor Cy to improve the headphone volume and to reduce at the same time interference from other stations, 1.3. BANDPASS CRYSTAL RECEIVER. A highly-sclective erystal broadcast receiver circuit is shown in Figure 1-3. The abili circuit to separate stations more effectively than earlier sets is made Possible by a tuned bandpass filter made up with manufactured coils. These coils are obtainable as a kit. Single-dial tuning is entirely by ‘means of the dual 365-afd variable capacitor. The audio output of this circuit is somewhat lower than that afforded by the receivers described in Sections 1.1 and 1.2. However, the circuit was designed originally for use as a brosdeast tuner to be used with & high-fidelity audio amplifier. The amplifier gain compensates for the low volume of the erystal detector output. 6 ‘MELDED ANTENNA COIL WITH FREQUENCY RANGE OF 240-1750 KO \ \ fo HEADeveNES OR enoUNDED See roo NEGATIVE MUTUAL COUPLING COIL, Figure 1-3. BAND PASS CRYSTAL RECEIVER 1.4 USE OF AUDIO AMPLIFIERS WITH CRYSTAL SETS. While crystal receivers ordinarily are thought of as being used with hheadphones, any crystal set may be used ahead of an audio amplifier when loudspeaker operation is desired. Because of the increased linearity of the crystal detector at low signal levels, a combination of crystal receiver and audio amplifier will give truetolife reproduction, 22000 5 Fiqure 1-4, CRYSTAL VIDEO DETECTOR FOR TELEVISION Figure 1-4 is the cireuit of a video detector employing the 1N34. This circuit will be of interest to builders of home-made television receivers ‘who wish to reduce the amount of tube space on the chassis, while at the same time taking advantage of the additional improvements offered by the erystal detector. 1.5 CRYSTAL VIDEO DETECTOR. Because the dynamic resist- ‘ance of the germanium crystal diode is very low and the crystal capaci- tance also is low, the crystal diode offers improved operation in video second detector circuits in television receivers. The crystal diode also fgives excellent linearity at low signal levels and is free from contact potential effects.Figure 1-5 shows a typical de restorer circuit. Several new erystal diodes developed by Sylvania have the ability to withstand relatively hhigh negative de voltages and are well suited to use in the de restorer uit. These new diodes are the 1NSS which is rated at 150 volts, 1NS7 at 80 volts, and 1NS8 at 100 volts. Figure 1-5. CRYSTAL DC RESTORER FOR TELEVISION 1.6 CRYSTAL DC RESTORER FOR TELEVISION. The func- tion of de restoration in a television receiver is accomplished proficiently by a erystal diode because of its low dynamic resistance. 27Omata segowo-DerecroR o1008 9s-xo Lr Teansronne is? Figure 1-6, SECOND DETECTOR—AV.C. CIRCUIT 1.7 SECOND DETECTOR—AVC CIRCUIT. Considerable space saving and circuit simplification are made possible in the radio re- ceivers, especially in short-wave and all-wave sets, by using erystal diodes as 2nd detector and ave rectifiers. In Figure 1:6, one 1N34 is employed as a series-diode 2nd detector, and a second 1N34 as a shuntdiode ave rectifier. The capacitance and ce values given in this circuit are for the popular 455 ke inter- te frequency. ‘The crystal diodes may be mounted under the chassis of the receiver with the eapacitors and resistors associated with the circuit. 8 1.8 FM DETECTORS. Germanium diodes simplify the circuits and construction of the frequency modulation 2nd detectors. The 1N3S duo- tas, ie LAST LF AMPLIFIER, ve wes + axe. perecron Taaneronuen 33040! 00m SPR (0) nari oerecron Figure 1-7. FM DETECTORS diode, consisting of two factory-matched crystals, is especially suitable for this application. Figure 1-7 shows the connection of the crystals int discriminator (A) and modified ratio detector (B) circuits for second detectors in both FM broadcast receivers and in the sound channels of television sets. Gireuit B is a special adaptation of the conventional ratio detector for ruse with 1N34 or 1N35 crystals. Both of these circuits are suited for if frequencies of the order of 10 to 30 megacycles. 1.9 COMPACT SERIES—SHUNT IMPULSE NOISE LIMITER. Figure 1-8 shows the use of two 1N34 and 1NS4 crystals, or a single IN35 duo-diode unit, in a compact yet extremely effective impulse noise 9_rraneronues PRESENT DIODE DETECTOR ‘FhesLarten enerenntoy on aise nave USER nore: un tet Avo Stace 80x aon. Figure 1-9, COMBINED SECOND DETECTOR, AV.C. ‘AND NOISE LIMITER 10 SRrSTALS ARE 34 oft 4, limiter of the series-shunt or compound type. This simple limiter can be installed in a communications receiver in a short time. Once installed ‘and adjusted, it requires no further attention, since it is self-adjusting to various strengths of signal, and various noise conditions. [All of the parts, including the crystals, may be mounted on a small bakelite strip and should be enclosed in a metal shield can, to prevent hum pickup. The single-pole-doublethrow switch allows the limiter to be cut out when not needed. ‘This simple noise limiter will be found extremely effective in the reduction of ignition interference in mobile receiver installations. 1.10 COMBINED SECOND DETECTOR AND NOISE LIMITER, ‘The circuit of Figure 1-9 can be combined with that of Figure 1-1 to make a simple three-crystal circuit to perform the functions of detection, ave, ‘and noise Limiting, in a superhet receiver. CRI is the detector-ave diode, and CR2 and CR3 are the limiter crystals. "Tube economy as well as circuit simplification will result from use of this circuit in a homemade receiver. The noise limiter effectively Clips noise pulses at a level slightly below that of the signal, giving improved operation under difficult noise conditions, TRANSMITTER AND AMPLIFIER APPLICATIONS 2.1 TRANSMITTER FAILURE ALARM, It often is necessary to alert transmitting station personnel other than operators in the trans- mmitter operating room when the station accidentally leaves the air. A monitoring receiver tuned to the transmitter frequency ordina ‘used, but this is not always a desirable method. A continuously running receiver ean become a nuisance. Figure 21 is the circuit for an automatic alarm which goes into operation whenever the carrier is interrupted. No direct connection to the transmitter is required. The erystal detector simplifes receiver and control circuits. fh ye (presen = tie) Feeauencr a Figure 2-1, TRANSMITTER FAILURE ALARM ‘The values of coil Land variable capacitor C; are selected to tune to the station frequency. C, can be a serewdriver-adjusted trimmer. A 1NS6 high-conduction diode is employed to insure maximum possible 11relay current. The pickup antenna may be a short inside or outside antenna, as receiving conditions dictate or it may be a short vertical rod, ‘When the station is on the air, the relay will be energized by the crystal diode and the relay contacts will open. Switch S then is closed ‘manually. If the station goes off the air, eurrent-will cease to flow through the relay coil, the contacts will close, and the alarm device (bell, horn, ‘or lamp) will be operated. 2.2 TRANSMITTER ADJUSTING GIMMICK. The untuned, f- operated crystal device illustrated in Figure 2-2 will find a host of uses in transmitter tuning-up and adjustment, When the small pickup coil is held near the plate or grid coil in any transmitter stage. it will pick up a small rf voltage which will be rectified by the IN34 and caused to deflect the milliammeter. Adjustment of the 1000-ohm rheostat will pre- vent “pinning” of the meter by strong signals. ‘This gadget may be used as an ri indicator in neutralizing adjust- iments, stage tuning, exploring for parasitics and stray rf, and testing the effectiveness of shielding. Many other applications will occur to the reader. Headphones may be plugged into the jack for aural monitor- ing of amplitude modulated signals and for hum and noise tracing in transmitter stages. for chase vane Twisteo Pale OF Eestace Conc este ICU HEADPHONE JACK Figure 2.2. TRANSMITTER ADJUSTING GIMMICK He Figure 2-3. LOW-POWERED FREQUENCY DOUBLER 2.3 LOW-POWERED FREQUENCY DOUBLER. Where space is at a premium, frequency doubling can be achieved by means of a pair of crystal diodes in the circuit shown in Figure 23. This circuit operates ‘on the principle that the output of a full-wave rectifier has twice the frequency of the ac input voltage. The doubling action is enhanced by the tank circuit LC which is tuned to twice the input frequency. The input tank cireuit (Ly-C,) is tuned to the mput frequency. Two of these simple doubler stages in cascade will quadruple the input frequeney.. Because of the low powerhandling ability of the crystal diodes, 12 operation of this cireuit is limited to input power levels of less than 1 watt. The crystal doubler accordingly can be used only ahead of pentode or beam power rf amplifiers having very high power sensitivity (that is, ‘amplifiers requiring low grid driving power). Slightly higher power ratings are obtained with a pair of 1NS6 diodes. ‘The erystal doubler is suitable for operation at frequencies up to 200 megacycles. 24 CARRIER-OPERATED INVERSE FEEDBACK CIRCUIT. In. verse feedback is invaluable in a modulated transmitter for improving quality and reducing hum and noise. It is not so easily applied, how: o0p00 516 oF sreecn Figure 2-4. CARRIER OPERATED INVERSE FEEDBACK CIRCUIT fever, to effciency-modulated circuits, such as grid-modulated, screen- modulated, cathode-modulated, and class-B linear amplifies. ‘The crystal circuit shown in Figure 2-4 overcomes this difficulty by “sampling” the modulated carrier. The picked-up rf is demodulated by the crystal, and the audio voltage obtained by this process is applied to the control grid of the first speech amplifier tube. The 100,000-ohm potentiometer enables the operator to adjust the fed-back audio voltage to the proper level for best results When using this system, it is advisable not to include more than one iron-core transformer in the feedback loop. If oscillation occurs, throw the phase reversing switch to its opposite position. 2.5 PREMODULATION SPEECH CLIPPER. The obvious advan tages of speéch clipping may he obtained in an existing amplitude modulated transmitter by includhig a satisfactory clipper unit between the first and second stages of the speech amplifier. Figure 25 shows a 2erystal glipper circuit which may be connected conveniently. in any specch amplifier. The original gain control (Ra) of the amplifier becomes the clipper control, This control is set by ex: 13(eapesiduiepircdileniaunrsclainnina ainsi ted eva A wand potent (Ra) i led at the enplifer gin conte, Th 1N3S ne-dndo unt epics wo fasion matehed crystals for this cireui i tia ‘The filter, consisting of a choke and three capacitors in the pl i tai ef the tude ampli tage soos Sposa the clipping operation has squared them. This ler tha removes oe ca sypoutonou ent seen Figure 2.5. PREMODULATION SPEECH CLIPPER Figure 2.6. LOW-VOLTAGE BIAS SUPPLY 2.6 LOW-VOLTAGE BIAS SUPPLY. Fixed grid bias voltages be- tween 1 and 3 volts for audio amplifiers may be obtained from the 6.3- volt tube heater terininals in the amplifier through a erystal rectifier and filter. et Figure 26 shows a 4-crystal, full-wave bridge circuit which makes as supply which is compact and requires no attention. 14 ‘The de output voltage may be varied by changing the resistance value of R,. As Ry is decreased, the output valtage decreases, and vice versa. INSTRUMENTS AND GADGETS 3.1 SIMPLE SIDEBAND GENERATOR. Figure 31 shows four matched crystal diodes connected in a “ring modulator” circuit. In liew of four separate crystals, a Sylvania Type IN4O or IN41 Varistor may be tused. The Varistor is a smell, compact unit containing four matched odes. In this circuit, the rf-carrier is fed into one pair of terminals, and the modulation (usually an audio frequency) into the other pair. The carrier is suppressed by the circuit action and accordingly does not ap- pear in the output. The output contains only the upper sideband and lower sideband. mee as satcctat ade wet Figure 3-1. SIMPLE SIDEBAND GENERATOR ‘The upper sideband consists of the carrier frequency plus the modulat- ing frequency. ‘The lower sideband consists of the carrier frequency minus the modulating frequency. Thus; if the carrier is 1000 ke and the modulating frequency 1000 cycles, the upper sideband is 1001 ke fand the lower sideband 999 ke. If desired, a suitable filter may be con- nected in the output to eliminate (suppress) one of the sidebands and ppass the other. In this way, single sideband output may be obtained. 3.2 TUBELESS DC AMPLIFIER. This circuit (See Figure 32) is another application of the 4-erystal ring modulator. In this ease, how- ever, a de voltage is substituted for the carrier. An ac voltage of 1% volt, derived from half 6f a 2Y-volt filament transformer secondary, is de livered to the d-crystal circuit as the modulating voltage "The ac voltage switches the de voltage on and off at a rate equal to the ac frequency in much the same manner that a mechanical vibrator might interrupt the de circuit. This interrupted de voltage then is stepped up through transformer T; and induces an ac voltage across the secondary of this transformer. The fifth IN34 rectifies this voltage and delivers it to a vacuum tube voltmeter such as the Sylvania: Polymeter ‘Type 221. The Polymeter should be switched to the de indicating, posi 15tion, Thus, a small de voltage may be stepped up to a value high enough to be read on the scale of the meter. The amount of amplification obtained depends upon the turn ratio of transformer Ts. wine neyno ii ae DE.NeUT SIGNAL, Figure 3.2. TUBELESS DC AMPLIFIER To operate the device: (1) Set the Polyineter to zero on its lowest range. (2) Plug the amplifier circuit into the ac line and connect the voltmeter to the amplifier output terminals. (3) The meter will be de- flected upward. Adjust potentiometer R to bring the meter pointer back to zero. (4) Apply the unknown de voltage to the de input terminals of the amplifier, (5) Read the voltage on the meter and divide this value by the turn ratio of the transformer to obtain the true value of the unknown voltage. Best accuracy will be obtained if accurately-known small voltage values are fed into the amplifier and their corresponding meter deflections noted ‘on a chart or graph. 3.3 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER CIRCUITS. Figure 33 shows volt age doubler, tripler, and quadrupler circuits employing crystal diodes. ‘These circuits are especially useful, since they can be operated at radio frequencies as well as at power-line and audio frequencies. At frequencies between 60 and 10,000 cycles, use 8ufd electrolytic capacitors through. out. At all higher frequencies, use O.01-nfd mica eapacitors: At low output current drains, the doubler circuit will deliver a de voltage equal approximately to 2.8 times the rms. value of the ac input voltage. The tripler de output voltage will equal 4.2 times the 2c input voltage. The quadrupler de output voltage will equal 5.6 times the ‘ac input voltage. 16 ad wns foe ecourrur Paneer () vousice smeLen bc oureur e) voLrage qusonuuer Figure 3-3. CRYSTAL VOLTAGE MULTIPLIER CIRCUITS INTERSTAGE AUDIO TRANSFORNER (SHELOEDI ae ‘onec3 ute 000846 Figure 3-4, INDICATING AUDIO FREQUENCY METER 3.4 AUDIO FREQUENCY METER. This instrument (See Figure 34) will identify an unknown audio frequency directly in eyeles per second. The circuit is “balanced” in a manner similar to the balancing ‘of a bridge. The Wien bridge circuit is employed. 17In operation, the unknown frequency is fed into the audio input terminals and the main dial, which is attached to the dual potentiometer, ReRs, is adjusted for null (lowest lip of microammeter M). Then, an adjustment of auxiliary potentiometer R, will sharpen the null point without upsetting the calibration. At this point, the unknown frequency is read from the calibrated RvR, dial. The frequency sange of the instrument is 25 to 10,000 eycles. ‘The audio frequency meter is easy to build and requires no critical components, except the capacitors, each of which should have 1% tolerance. The instrument may be calibrated by feeding in various known fre quencies (obtained from an audio oscillator) between 25 and 10,000 cycles, adjusting ReR, and Ry for null, and marking each frequency setting on the dial of Re-Rs at corresponding null points. If an oscillator ‘not available, a good ohmmeter or resistance bridge may be used to calibrate the RR dial according to the following table which shows the frequencies corresponding to various resistance settings of RyRy FREQUENCY RESISTANCE FREQUENCY RESISTANCE (cycles) (ohms) (cycles) (ohms) 25 461,000 700 16,500 30 386,000 800 14,400 40 289,000 500 12,800 50 231,000 1000 11,500 60 192000 1500 7700 5 154,000 2000 5.780 100. 115,000 2500 4620 150 7.000 5000 3.850 200 57,800 3500 3,300 250 46,200 ‘4000 2890 300 38,500 4500 2,570 350 33,000 5000 21130 400 28,900 3500 2,090 450 25.700 6000 1,920 500 21/300 7000 1650 550 20900 8000 Lio 600 19200 9000 1.280 650 17700 10,000 1150 The resistance of either section, Ry or R, may be measured, since both, sections read the same or very nearly so, 3.5 FREQUENCY TRIPLER. Figure 35 shows a simple non4 bridge circuit for tripling any frequency fed into its input terminals. This circuit is recommended for use at low ac levels, up to 144 volts rm. The output is not true sine wave, ‘The circuit is based on the fact that the bridge, having a erystal rectifier as one arm, may be balanced at only one voltage. This is because the crystal resistance chanzes with voltage. Consequently, as an applied ac 18 [82 25 On one as mcquency INPUT 3x Frequency oureut Figure 3.5. FREQUENCY TRIPLER half-eycle rises from zero and falls back to 2ero, the null voltage value is passed twice and the output voltage accordingly is zero four times during this half eycle: The output frequeney thus is 144 cycles for each input half-cyele. By connecting two erystals back-to-back, as shown in Figure 3.6. TWO-WAY RELAY OPERATING AT TWO. DIFFERENT VALUES OF AN INCREASING OR DECREASING DC VOLTAGE Figure 3:5, each half of the applied ac eycle is multiplied by 146, re sulting in a total multiplication of 3. This accounts for the tripling action. 8.6 ‘TWO-WAY RELAY CIRCUIT. A non-linear crystal bridge, similar to the one just deseribed in Section 3.5, may be used to operate 4 singlepole doublethrow (“left-right” type) de relay at two different values of voltage, one higher than the other. This is convenient in many forms of signalling or indicating set-ups in which a contol volte vieg from one value to another and must give indication of one voltage without. interfering with the other. In operation, set the bridge initially (by adjusting the 1000-ohm potentiometer) at the lowest value of inpet voltage at which the relay ig to close. When the circuit is adjusted properly, the relay armature will swing over to one contact. As the inpst voltage then is increased, the bridge will pass through null, due to changing crystal resistance, ‘whereupon the relay will open. As the voltage is increased further, the 19crystal resistance will undergo additional change and the bridge will unbalance in the opposite direction causing the relay to close on the other side. ‘Various phenomena, such as temperature, current, and frequency variations, may be converted into voltage changes and made to operate this relay to sound alarms or to record changes. e908, menoammereR feanecre casey sag aaxeee ne FIGURE 3-7. STANDING WAYE INDICATOR FOR TWIN-LEAD RF TRANSMISSION LINE 3.7 STANDING WAVE INDICATOR. Figure 3-7 shows a handy ar- rangement of a crystal diode and de microammeter for testing for standing waves along a flat, twinlead transmission line such as the 300-chm Tines used between amateur transmitters and antennas, No direct electrical connection to the line is required. ‘The crystal diode is wired in parallel with the meter. The notch or slot ent into the polystyrene base back of the meter is just wide fenough to clear the transmission line edges comfortably. As the instru- tment is slid along the line, with the transmitter in operation, the meter twill deflect up-scale to indicate peaks and down-scale to indicate nulls. 3.8 SIMPLE FIELD STRENGTH METER. This instrument (Fi ‘ure 38) is indispensable for checking the gain and field pattern of transmitting antennas and for checking for presence of harmonics and interference. The entire unit may be built into a small metal radio utility box. "A ‘Type INSG crystal diode is recommended since this crystal gives re de output current than the 1N34 and accordingly will produce a higher meter deflection with a given rf signal ‘Commercial short-wave plug-in coils may be used. Special coils for the ultrashigh-frequeney emaleur bands may be wound according to specifications found in the amateur radio handbooks. If the tuning dial of the field strength meter (attached to tuning capacitor C) is calibrated directly in megacycles by means of an rf tect oscillator or signal generator, the instrument will be suitable as an absorption wavemeter for frequenty measurements. 3.9 SENSITIVE FIELD STRENGTH METER. Sensi field strength meter may be increased by employing (1) ity of the I-wave de- tection with two matched crystals and (2) a sensitive de microammeter 20 in place of the milliammeter. -4Neh VERTICAL ROO segowouy once Evers case oF msrmuwent Lyte COMMERCIAL PLUG-IN COM. FOR BAND USED Figure 3-8. SIMPLE FIELD STRENGTH METER ‘The full-wave detector circuit in Figure 8.9 consists of a center-tapped, double-tuned secondary coil (Lz) and a 1N35 dual crystal diode. Tnstructions are given in Figure 3-9 for winding the required tapped, plug-in eoils for continuous coverage of the frequency range 3.5 to 200 rmegacycles. 3.10 AF-RF AMMETER. A radio-frequency ammeter which can be used at frequencies up to 100 megacycles or better is a handy device for the amateur station, laboratory, or radio workshop. A simple meter of this type is shown in Figure 3-0. This instrument consists basically of a crystal voltmeter (crystal diode plus a de milliammeter) connected so as to measure the voltage drop fcross a non-inductive ohm resistor. The unknown current flowing through this resistor sets up the voltage drop. By Ohm's Law, the voltage measured across the L-ohm resistor will be equal to the current flowing through the resistor. Consequently, if the meter is ealibrated 0-1 volt, it will indicate also 0-1 ampere Calibration of the instrument is simple. Apply an accurately-known tac voltage of 1 volt (66 cycles will do, but 1000 cycles will be better) {o the input terminals. Then adjust the 300-ohm theostat for full-scale deflection of the milliammeter. The meter indicates at full-scale as cur- rent flow of 1 ampere through the I-ohm resistor. Reduce the input voltage to 0.9 volt and record the milliammeter reading. Repeat at various lower voltage points in 1/10-volt steps, to obtain a calibration curve similar to the one shown in Figure 3-10. This chart then may be referred to ‘when making measurements, to convert milliampere indications to ea, Or a special ampere scale may be prepared from it for the nilliammeter. Because of the wide frequency range of the erystal, the ammeter can be operated at radio as well as audio frequencies. 21MOGET DUAL TUNING CAPACITOR (S04 PER SECTION) HEADPHONE JACK DevaIL oF puve-n cont 72 0F te Le CENTER HP , ueorie gezunns nae exanerceo ‘THe DRALVES OF Le ane race SicwrUr Yo aceoweonre ty Eaeeae 1 esc cae 1s TURN oF Na84 ENAMELED WIRE WON THE SPACE BETWEEN THE HALVES OF Le rt Figure 3-9, SENSITIVE FIELD STRENGTH METER Mi celeste tue ee ee spat fener oe ee tes ite mite eh ee pie, sane a any te i hry Fle 31 come nals of any audio oscillator. It will combine the t ill combine the two signals and deliver 4 radio-frequency signal modulated at the frequency of the audio oscil- lator. In this way, the signal generator circuit need not be altered in any manner. The circuit described in Sections 3 a type of diode modulator si and 3.2 lar to those When ising the: device, comect the outpat terminals ofthe. sgt enerator tothe ef input terminal of the modular creat, Swilceot Teccomrach medelaine ob Samaiguskageceon sei er else Gre 22 stor output terminals tothe audio input Come plato Cones the receiver, or other equipment teeinae of oe megulated of output terminals, Adjust the outpt volt Tye control of the audio oscillaior to give the desired modulation im- signal. Connect the audio oscil tensity. a ampur TERMINALS Se Sie = * t cauionarion CURVE Figure 3-10, AP-RF AMMETER (0-100 MC) ‘Actually, this modulator suppresses the carrier frequency and de- xs the two sidebands which result from the amplitude modulati cess, But for audio frequencies up to about 2500 cycles, the modulated fignal will be tunedin on a receiver dial at the same point as the regular signal generator signal. Only at modulation frequencies above 5000 ‘eyeles will the receiver dial show the two sidebands as separate signals, fone above and one below the carrier frequency point. 3.12 RF PROBE. DC acum tube voltmeters now are standard equip- iment in laboratories, stations, and shops. A number of these instruments have no provision for checking sf voltages. It is advantageous to be able to measure rf voltages in receiver signal tracing and in various forms of experimental work. Figure 312 shows details of a crystaltype rf probe which may be used in conjunction with any de vacuum tube voltmeter. This is one of many types of such probes which have been developed since introduction of the germanium crystal diode. ‘This probe will handle frequencies up to 200 megacycles. The maxi- ‘mum voltage which may be checked with it will be 20 volts rms. The O01-4fd input capacitor isolates the crystal and protects it and the 1 de voltages which may be present in the circuit under 23 circuit from harmfulron aS SstLLaTOR MoouLATED R& ouTPUT Figure 3-11. EXTERNAL MODULATOR FOR RF TEST OSCILLATOR test. The indication obtained on the de scale of the VIVM will be equal to approximately 1.4 times the rms. value of the applied rf volt- age. For best accuracy, the probe should be calibrated by applying to it a number of accurately-kiiown rf voltages (checked by means of an- other voltmeter) and observing the corresponding readings of the de vacuum tube voltmeter. 3.13 AUDIO EXTRACTOR FOR SIGNAL GENERATORS. While all signal generators and rf test oscillators are modulated internally, only ‘few of these instruments deliver an audio output signal in addition to rf. The audio voltage is useful for testing audio amplifiers and the audio channels of radio receivers, and for various other experimental purposes requiring a single test tone. ‘The circuit in Figure 3-13 extracts the audio signal from the modu- lated rf output of a signal generator. This device, which may be built easily into a small can or box, is connected to the output terminals of the signal. generator and requires no tempering with the internal cireuit of the instrument 3.14. TUBELESS TONE GENERATOR. When an ec signal is ap- plied to two crystals connected in a full-vave rectifier circuit, the output ‘current delivered by the erystals is a pulsating de having twice the fi quency of the applied voltage. The full-wave circuit thus becomes frequency doubler. A second full-wave circuit, added in cascade to the first one, will double the frequency again, thereby delivering 4 times the frequency of the input signal. Any additional full-wave circuit will double the frequency it receives, and the multiplication process may be carried on to a point at which the output voltage finally becomes. too low to be useful. In this way, a number of stages may be cascaded, each stage output giving a tone which is an even multiple of the input fre- quency. 24 prco me SOOmMaMCa om CERAM CAPACITOR Fege.vacuow aware Tee VaSRiteR j ‘hocoowe GROUND CUP soureryaene Re oes Braid SF aan oo FF eels Pear SELPEBwoucton, saareo FLEXIBLE LEAD cnocoowe CUP consTRUCTIONAL, DETAILS 88hpur Figure 312. RE PROBE FOR DC VACUUM TUBE VOLTMETER Comtech Yo ue utetoou Seite Hine curs PREABEEEom gggute mo over | t @ seu, 3. Figure 3-13. AUDIO EXTRACTOR FOR RF SIGNAL GENERATORS Figure 3-14 shows a circuit of this kind for doubling and quadrupling any audio frequency within the range of the coupling transformers. The input signal may be taken from the ac power. line or from an audio oscillator. Three audio transformers and four erystal diodes are em- ployed. If the. builder desires, two Sylvania IN35.duordiode units may be used in place of the four seperate 1N34’s. T; and Ts are ordinary interstage audio transformers with single-ended primaries and push-pull secondaries. T; has a single-ended primary and secondary. 25‘A closed-circuit jack in the first stage delivers output at twice the input signal frequency, while the output terminals of transformer T; delivers 4 times the input frequency. Thus, if a 60-cycle voltage is a plied to the signal input terminals, the jack will deliver 120 and the output terminals 240 cycles. ‘The output of this tone generator is not true sine wave. If the builder requires pure tones, it will be necessary to employ bandpass filters in the output circuits to transmit the desired frequency only. fursaring 0. puvearine ‘, GRegueNerGin nse CengovENcy =F) recone SEcoNARY GNAL / | eyonepcimcur sack ron,” Acencauencrsan a dtrncquencroarh Figure 3-14, TUBELESS TONE GENERATOR 8.15 TUBELESS AUDIO OSCILLATOR. When a germanium diode is connected in the “back direction” (that is, with its cathode to the positive de power supply terminal) in « suitable circuit, it will oscillate, provided the applied de voltage is high enough to reach the negative resistance region in the reverse-conduction curve of the erystal. ‘An audio oscillator circuit applying this principle is shown in Figure 3.15. The constants of this eireuit are such that the frequency of oscilla- tion is approximately 1200 cycles. The frequency may be increased by decreasing the capacitance of the capacitor, and may be lowered by in- creasing the capacitance. This circuit delivers an output of about 30 yolts rms. across a pair of 2000-ohm headphones. yt 2004 caPscron ‘ooo igure 3-15. TUBELESS AUDIO OSCILLATOR 26 ‘Adjustment of the oscillator is very ‘simple: Rotate the 10,000-ohm potentiometer until the point is reached at which the circuit breaks into bxcllation. Then, reduce the potentiometer setting slightly. ‘This oscillator is suitable only for intermittent use, such as it might receive in signal injection or signal tracing in audio amplifier testing, fo as a code practice oscillator, Sustained operation of the erystal in its foscllating negative resistance condition produces appreciable internal heating and will ultimately destroy the unit. Nevertheless, this eireuit will be found extremely useful, especially for applications requiring a rminiature instrument. 3.16 CRYSTAL DIODE WAVE SHAPER. In various forms of radio and electronic testing, it is desirable to have @ signal consisting either of positive peaks only, negative peaks only, or square waves. Pulse generators for producing special signals of these types are com- plicated equipment and therefore costly. ‘The cireuit illustrated in Figure 3-16 takes @ sine-wave signal, which may be obtained easily from an cudio oscillator or from a stepdown transformer operated from the ac power line, and converts it into either ‘one of the special signals described above. While pulses obtained in this manner are not perfect, they will be suitable for a wide variety of experimental work. Operation of the circuit is based upon the clipper or limiter pris ciple, When both switches ere openythe output vollage of the device has the same sinewave shape as the input signal (See pattern A). When switch S, is closed and S, opened, the first crystal diode and 1Y,-volt cell clip the negative peaks from the input signal and deliver an output signal consisting almost entizely of positive peaks (See pattern B). When 8, is closed and S, open, the second diode and cell clip the positive peaks from the input signal and deliver an output signal consisting almost entirely of negative peaks (See pattern C). When both S; and S, are closed, positive and negative peaks are both clipped and the output Signal is very nearly @ square wave. (See pattern D). Best squareness will be obtained sehen the input signal is at least 30 volts rms. Potentiometer R, is an amplitude control for adjusting the strength of the output signal to suit individual conditions. When the device is not in use, both switches must be thrown to their ‘oven position to prevent battery drain throueh the crystals. 3.17 AF-RF WATTMETER The instrument shown in Figure 317 will indicate audio-frequeney or radiofrequency power up to 100 watts, either directly on a specially-drawn meter scale or by reference to a calibration curve such as the one shown below the circuit diagram, This wattmeter may be built into a small metal meter box. ‘After the circuit has been wired, the instrument must be calibrated in the following manner. Disconnect temporarily one end of resistor Rs, and short-circuit terminals 3 and 4. Apply an accurately-known 10-volt rms. signal (60 eycles will do) to input terminals 1 and 2, and adjust 27(Us sine wave output SIAL WIM ANO Sp BOTH OPEN (e) rosime-Reax OUTPUT SENAL WIM 5, OPEN AND Sp C1O6ED (oy wecarve-PEAK OUTPUT SIONAL WITH 8; CLOSED AND 5 OPEN (o) curren GUTPUT SIGNAL WITH 8, AKO Sp BOTH CLOSED Figure 3-16, CRYSTAL DIODE WAVE SHAPER frre, 8d RESTOR en 34 ca _ Jo 6, MILAMNETER Dc, MILAMPERES Figure 3-17, AF-RF WATTMETER rheostat Ry for exact full-scale deflection of the of the linearity of the crystal-meter combination 28 meter. Because in this voltage range, ‘only the single-point check need be made, Do not disturb the setting of Ry unless a recalibration is required later on. Remove the signal voltage from terminals 1 and 2, remove the short-circuiting jumper from ter- ‘minals 3 and 4, and reconnect resistor Ra. ‘This wattmeter is very simple to use. The following procedure is recom- mended, (1) Determine the output impedance of the amplifier, oscillator, for other device to be tested. (2) Connect to terminals 3 and 4 a 100- watt resistor (preferably non-induetive) which has a resistance value ‘equal to 1 ohm less then the impedance of the powerdelivering device, Tt may not always be possible to obtain a resistor having the exact resistance value required. In this case, it will be necessary to use a wirewound unit with a slider set to the desired ohmic value. If the output impedance of the power-delivering device is 1 ohm, do not use an ex- ternal resistor at all. Instead, short-circuit terminals 3 and 4. (3) Con- rect terminals 1 and 2 to the output terminals of the power-delivering device. (4) Read output watts on the meter scale, or by reference to the curve given in Figure 3-17. (5) Multiply this meter reading by the output impedance of the device under test when this impedance is higher than I ohm. ‘When checking the power output of an audio amplifier, disconnect the loudspeaker voice coil from the amplifier, connect terminals 1 and 2 of the wattmeter in place of the voice coil, and connect a resistor to terminals 3 and 4 equal in chmage to the voice coil impedance minus 1 ‘ohm, The external resistor must be rated to handle at least 2 times the power output of the amplifier. 3.18 SENSITIVE AF-RF SIGNAL TRACER, Numerous crystal diode signal tracers have been designed by radio writers. The instrument shown in Figure 3-18 has the advantages that it will give meter readings, fas well as headphone signals, at very low values of signal input voltage. This tracer may be used for trouble shooting in all of the xf, detector, oscillator, if, and audio stages of a radio receiver, and in audio amplifier systems. ‘A Type 1NS4 high-efficiency diode is used for improved performance. ‘The 0.01-ufa input capacitor protects the diode, headphones, and meter from any de voltage which may be present in the circuit ier tet. The 200,000-ohm theostat acts as a gain control to adjust the meter current toa readable value. The meter circuit is plugged into the jack in the ena Of the héndle of the exploring probe for visual indications; the head- hones for aural indications. A modolated signal is necessary to operate the headphones, but the meter will be actuated by cither a modulated or unmodulated signal 3.19 DISTORTION METER. This instrument (See Figure 3-19) ean be used to measure the distortion percentage of audio amplifiers and oscil- 29“ras usn0 0 vie Br one Pave Figure 3-18, SENSITIVE AF.RF SIGNAL TRACER lators, It consists of a bridged:T mull network.and a range crystal voltmeter. With Switch S, in its top position, the instrument range i 0.100% distortion; with S, in its center position, the range is 0-10% ; and with S, in its lower position, the range is 0:5%. The instrument operates at 400 cycles. The null network (consisting of the choke, two v0 Fiqure 3-19, DISTORTION MFTFR 0.05-ufa. capacitors, and 1-megohm rheostat) removes the 400-cycle fuiidamental frequency. Any voltage remaining is due to harmonics and is measured by the erystal voltmeter. After the instrument has been completed, it must be calibrated in the following manner: The microammeter needs no specie! calibration on the 0-100% scale, it being read directly in percentage. The 0-10 and 05 scales must be calibrated separstely, however, because of non-linearity of the crystal at the lower voltages. Apply a variable-voltage source to the audio input terminals of the distortion meter (60 eyeles will do), 30 set gain control R, to the top of its range, throw switch S; to its SET position, and set switch S, to its 10% position. Adjust the voltage in 1/10-volt steps from 0.1 to 1 volt, marking the meter scale or making a calibration chart. The voltage scale then will show distortion per- ‘centages in the following manner: RMS INPUT VOLTS % DISTORTION eerouewne 10 10 Next switeh S, to its 59 position and apply a variable input in 1/10- volt steps from 0.1 to 0.5 volt and prepare another meter scale or refer- cence chart as follows: RMS INPUT VOLTS % DISTORTION 1 on 02 2 03, 3 oa 4 05, 5 For the initial adjustment: (1) Connect the input terminals of the dis- tortion meter to a variable-frequency audio oscillator. (2) Set output control of oscillator to maximum. (3) Throw switch S; to SET. (4) Set oscillator dial to 400 cycles. (5) Adjust gain control Ry (with S, on 5% range) for full-scale deflection of microammeter. (6) Throw S; to READ, noting drop in meter deflection. (7) Tune oscillator above and below 400. cycles, noting that meter deflection passes through null. Retune dial carefully for lowest dip in microammeter reading. This setting of oscillator dial should be 400 cycles. If it is not, due to inac- curacies in the capacitors and choke in the distortion meter, mark exact point on oscillator dial for quick retuning. (8) Adjust’ rheostat Re carefully for an improvement in the null. (9) When the best null point is obtained, the meter very likely will not read exactly zero. The reading ‘at this point indicates the distortion percentage of the oscillator. This figure must be recorded, since it should be subtracted from any distortion readings obtained later on when this oscillator is employed. To use the distortion meter, follow the instructions: (1) Connect the audio oscillator (set to the 400-cycle test frequency) to the input termi- nals of the amplifier under test. (2) Connect the input terminals of the distortion meter to the output terminals of the amplifier (that is, across the loudspeaker voice coil or across a substitute load resistor having the 31‘ohmic value of the voice coil impedance). (3) Set $, to SET. (4) Set Sy to 100%. (5) With the oscillator and amplifier in operation, adjust Ry for a meter reading. (6)Set S, to READ. (7) Read distortion ‘percentage ‘an the meter scale or by reference to the calibration chert. If a readable deflection is not obtained, throw S, to a lower range. 3.20 SIMPLE SELECTIVE TELEPHONE CIRCUIT. Figure 3:20 shows a simple wire telephone cireuit by means of which either one of two remote listeners (both on a single, 2wire line) may be addressed without the other one hearing. This scheme will appeal to Scouts, summer campers, and house-to-house telephone enthusiasts. The circuit operates in this way: Listener A has a crystal diode “for- ward connected” in series with his headphones. In the forward direction, this erystal introduces very little resistance into the circuit and station. A accordingly hears clearly whatever is said into the microphone. Listener B, however, has a crystal “back connected” in series with his headphones. In the back direction, this crystal introduces a very high resistance into that portion of the circuit which includes headpbones B. The currents flowing through these headphones therefore are too small to reproduce sound. Station B hears nothing. «In order to reverse the procedure and talk to station B, to the exclusion of A, simply reverse the polarity of the battery at the sending station, ERR t= ——— Figure 3-20. SIMPLE SELECTIVE TELEPHONE CIRCUIT ‘whereupon the erystal A becomes a high resistance and cuts out that station, while B receives. For short distances, the battery can be a 1¥4-volt dry cell. For longer distances, the voltage must be increased to overcome the resistance losses in the wires. The best voltage for a given distance must be determined experimentally, For simplicity, only a one-way circuit is shown in Fig- ure 3:20. 3.21 SELECTIVE TELEGRAPH CIRCUIT. By employing the same principle described in Section 3.20, a 2-wire line may be used for sending telegraph signals separately to either one of two receiving stations con nected across the line. Instead of telegraphing, a bell or other alarm may be operated at will at either one of the stations without disturbing the ‘other. Figure 3-21 shows the circuit used. 32 Each receiving station has a sensitive relay and crystal diode connected in series across the 2-wire line. At Station A, the crystal is forward-con- nected and allows between 2 and 3 milliamperes to flow through its associated relay coil when the key or switch is élosed at the transmitting station. This current is suficient to operate the relay. At Station By the erystal is back-connected and passes only about 100 microamperes: through its relay coil. This small current is insuficient to pick up the relay. When the polarity of the transmitting battery is reversed, the relay ft Station B is actuated because its erystal anode then is connected to the positive battery terminal (forward connection), and the one at Sta- tion A is dead. The relays may be used to operate telegraph sounders, bells, horns, lamps, locks, valves, or other electromechanical or electrical devices. ci ete ‘Sa ermet pote —— ‘sever Figure 3-21. SELECTIVE TELEGRAPH CIRCUIT The 22¥4-volt battery is adequate for operation up to several hundred feet when the wire used in the line is at least No. 18 in size. For longer- distance communication, the battery voltage must be increased, the most suitable voltage being determined by experiment. 3.22 MODULATION AND CARRIER SHIFT METER. The i Strument shown is circuit schematic in Figure 3-22 will give direct in- dications of modulation percentage on either positive or negative peaks, land will indicate carrier shift when used to monitor an amplitade-modu- lated radio transmitter. This is the circuit of the popular Sylvania Mod- eter. “The input terminals of this instrument are link coupled (by means of 4 small pickup coil and twisted-pair or coaxial line) to the final amplifier plate tank coil of the modulated transmitter. With the ganged switch. Sy, thrown to its rf position, the coupling between the pickup coil and the plate tank is varied while the 100-xfd. tuning capscitor is adjusted to deflect the milliammeter to a reference point near full-scale. This read ing will not change unless carrier shift is present in the transmitted signal. 33mutter Figure 3-22. PERCENTAGE MODULATION AND ‘CARRIER SHIFT METER When Switch S, is thrown to its af position, the meter will indicate modulation. The meter scale may be calibrated to read modulation per centage directly by means of modulated signals of variable percentage land an oscilloscope set up to show modulation patterns. See the Sylvania hook How to Service Radios with an Oscilloscope for an explanation of these patterns, how to obtain them, and how to interpret them. When switch S, is thrown to its lefthand position, positive-peak modulation will be indicated by the meter. With this switch in its righthand pos negative-peak modulation will be indicated. (PICKUP ANTENNA, mse ‘ia S “Sout, rune $uo Figure 3-23. 144MC RECEIVER FOR MODEL CONTROL 34 Headphones may be plugged into the closed-circuit listening jack for the purpose of monitoring the modulated signal for voice quality and for the presence of noise or hum. When making modulation percentage checks, however, the headphones must be removed. 3.23 RECEIVER FOR MODEL CONTROL. Figure 3.23 gives the cireult diagram of a 144Me-band crystal receiver for model control. ‘This set has the particular advantage of small size and light weight, features which suit it well for airplane and small boat control. Increased sensitivity is obtained in this circuit by the use of two Type N36 high-conduction erystal diodes in a full-wave detector circuit, and by use of bias battery. Thé battery current through the relay coil is adjusted (without a received signal) to the point at which the relay is just about to operate. The rectified crystal voltage, due to the received signal, then will be required to furnish only the small additional cur- rent necessary to pick up the relay. Greater sensitivity is obtained in this way than is possible with single-crystal reception without the battery. For simplicity and foolproof operation, a manufactured coil is specified in Figure 3-23. bo muuaurenes cheap eae Figure 3-24, CRYSTAL VOLTMETER Sailer 3.24 CRYSTAL VOLTMETER. The erystal voltmeter has the ad. ‘vantages that itis capable of instant operation; requires no zero setting; has a wide frequency response extending from power-line frequencies to 200 megacycles or more; is compact enough to be built easily as an out put indicator into other instruments such as wavemeters, oscillators, bridges, and monitors; and requires no batteries nor other power supply for its operation. Its input impedance, however, is low compared to a ‘vacuum tube voltmeter. But this does not detract from its usefulness in many applications. Tigure 324 shows the simplest crystal cireuit, employing a 1N3t diode, 0-1 de milliammeter, and bypass capacitor. This meter will find a host of uses inthe radio room. ‘The basic range of the meter is less than 1 volt r.m.s. signal input for full-scale deflection. Figure 3.24 shows a sample calibration curve for this instrument, The builder must calibrate his own meter, however, since ‘dual erystals vary in conduction characteristics. The basic range of the meter may be extended, as in other ac meters, by use of multiplier resistors. 35INTERVAL TIMER Peeks timer wick may be wend fo ontrol direetly" lectial” devices al various tte he rome apeine oe Ue devices cantzlling the lamp in «photo aril penngiber kare in thi crit (See Figure 2), direct current supplied by + 1NS6 Geriaaniam Diode energaed by the 6:3vat winding fla wal Slamert transformer i ated to Gauge 4. 1000mierforad dlectolyue Capac, ‘The capacitor i. charged by ‘Mowing the singleole dosblesheow springyeturnevtch, 8. momentarily to i Iechand postin. When the switch then i released, etroe tos normal Wietehand ponion andthe capacitor
of 8600 revebetions bayonet tips of the Iarep base are filed Sranformer and INS crystal diode. A nest two INS6G in parallel, For small rate of 8600 revelations per Aon, Th ter end of the tube i ned Keckarwiernvent meena eaaetel Lh cmmedaa tenave ee ‘appear to stand still when ‘ aida lami termere for adjusting and holding the plating Ashes from the pocket stroboncope. One DY 8 amet 9 ster ‘wlae. The may be contained ina water glass, important application of this simiple hich the power cord panes. mayonnaise jar, or even a teat tube.AMMETER-WATTMETER FOR ELECTRICAL APPLIANCE TESTING (a) cincurr oF istRUMeNT yous aurenes a 02 85. on os oo () SuPce caLioRaTion oxra Figure 41. AC Ammeter-Wottmeter for Appliance Testing. urcraicaL repairmen will find the crystal meter cireuit shown in Figure 41(A) useful for checking the ampere and watte drawn by electrical appliances such as motors, heaters, lamps, irons, te. This instrument ia a8 easy to use a8 a voltmeter, ‘The circuit comsists of a simple ac voltmeter (Germanium Diode in series ‘with « 01 de milliammeter) connected in parallel with a O.ohm resistor. The latter is made up of ten 2oratt carbon ‘ohm resistors connected in parallel with each other. All current drawn by the appliance under test must pass through the Ohm resistor. This current sete pres or watts. By using a low value of series resistance, such as 0.1 ohm, the voltage drop is not high enough to re- duce detrimentally the appliance voltage. Use of the instrument is simple: The rele plug is inserted into powerline receptacle, the appliance is plugged into ‘the female outlet of the instrument, and ‘the amperes or watts read by referring the milliammeter reading to calibration data. For’ maximum convenience, the lammpere and watt points, obtained in the {nital ealibration of the instrument, may be lettered.in on the milliammeter scale, "The reader must calibrate his own onsiderable ‘To make the calibration, set up the test circuit shown in Figure 41(B) and take the following. steps: (1) Temporarily shortcireuit the terminals of the female futlet inthe instrument, (2) Set the Variae dial to zero, and set the calibra tion contol rheostat Ry to its maximum resistance postion. (3)\ Connect the ca bration circuit to the wattmeter and advance the Varise dial carefully until the calibrating ae voltmeter reads exactly Vyolt. ($) Adjust theostat Ry to bring the milliammeter reading exactly to 1 milliampere (full scale). Do not disturb the setting of this rheostat at any future time unless recalibration is be (6) Reduce the Variae until the ac volt meter reads 0.9 volt. Record the mil tmmeter reading at this point as corre- sponding to 9 amperes, or inscribe 9 on the meter scale directly above the pointer positon. (6) Reduce the Variae to ob- tain a voltmeter reading of 08 v and record this value (or mark it on the meter scale) as 8 amperes. (7) Repeat the procedare at each lower 0.1 volt step, rd in the Table in Figure 41(C) tuntil all values down to O volt have been covered. The corresponding ampere values are shown in the second column inthe Table. The meter now is calibrated to read amperes between 1 and 10. Val> tis between zero and 1 may be estimated, Remove the short-circuit from the female outlet, and disconnect the calibrating apparatus Corresponding wattage values at 115 tolie are given in the third column of the Table. These values have been ob- tained by multiplying the number of amperes by 115 volts, and may be let- fon the meter scale. If such as 800 watts, 1000, wat be determined. The wattage values given in the Table or obtained by means of a raph will not be correct unles the volt- ye measured at the appliance is 118 ¥. For any other voltage value, determine wattage by multiplying the appliance toltage by the number of amperes indi- ‘ated by the instrument. ‘The complete appliance tester may be built inte 4"S-inch" size metal meter box 24, ELECTRONIC DOOR LOCK Gres oF wgucateD oon ine hoa JO RILIARY recat ire renee | InoUND OUTSIDE OF CHOKE atts connec ae Figure 43. Electronic Door Lock. cune 43 shows the eiruits of trans and receiver employed im ‘adio-controlled door Tock. ‘The ‘wansmitter employe the damped wave fet up by, the sparking contacts of small watch-case type buzzer and ean be ‘made small enough (about the sae of « Iearing ald) to be carried in an ordinary 47 necetven ‘it cout pocket. he eee ea SOke cyl, ide ‘ecat which consumes no power during idle. periods and eds na tendance tholapat colle the ester pen hugh the pet col athe receiver pane the deo frame andere scene the exterionIn use, the two metal prods extending sitive relay operates the second relay, from the pocket transmitter are touched and the later operates the door lock. {othe two door plugs and the transmitter "Both transmitter and receiver are very Pushbutton depressed. This operates the broad in response and therefore do not bumer which transmite a damped wave require entice tuning. For the same rea through to the receiver and operates ts son. there will be no difficulties due to relays and the electric door lock. Clever frequency drift. Neher transmitter nor Prowlers who see the system in operation receiver uses tubes, hence maintenance will assume that the pocket device is a problems, aside from ocea Daitery, but wll Jearn thet de from 2 ment of the penlight cells in the battery’ will not operate the system." mitter, are eliminated. "The contacte of the SOsmicroampere de The electronic’ lock ma relay will not handle the current required house and to operate the door lock. A second relay doors of secret compartments, cabinets, ‘sccordingly must be employed. The sen: storetooms, and other private chambers: GERMANIUM DIODE INSTALLATION HINTS 1. Use the type of diode specified in against deliberately dropping the diode the cireait diagrams. These 'ypes have to the for, tapping on it, or otherwise been selected carefully to withtend clr. handling it in 2 rough manner 40.5 to fait voltages and other operating con- expose it unnecessarily to. mechanical tions, : 2. Whea soldering the diode into the "5 “Mount the crystal diode 40.1 cigcuit, hold the pigtail leads with a pair ia reasonably free from severe mechanical Of long.nose pliers. This will prevent heat vibration. from the soldering irom from entering 6. Keep the crystal diode as far as snd possibly. damaging the crystal unit, 3 "i all installations ose as muck of the pigtal lead length as posi 4. While the Germanium Diode is rugged component, the user is cautioned ADAPTING DC VOLTMETER FOR AC MEASUREMENTS jing s resistance vf voltages of 100 and higher, Types 1N38, ‘at Teast 1000 chme per volt may be 1N39, INSS, and 1NS8 provide additional ‘converted for emergency measurements crystal safety. cof ac voliage by connecting « crystal diode temporarily in series with one of the indicating meter terminals at the meter. Connest the exthode terminal of the crystal to the postive terminal ofthe meter. A. IN34- will be satisfactory for short test ot all voltages. However, when Jong, continuous tests are to be made at 48BPI BP2 BPS BPA BPs BPS BPT 100 an 126 129 138 141 143 446 ur 149 150 156 157 160 161 163 165 188 170 1m 113 14 15 116 wt 178 iat 183 194 185, 187 191 501 502 RCC pe BPO pelo BPI BPI2 Handbook of Transistor Equiv. Handbook of Radio, 'T-V. & Industrial Tube & Valve Bqutv. Handbook of Tested Transistor Circuits Inlernational Handbook of the Worlds Short Ws ‘and Substitutes Long Wave Radio Stations & FM & TV Listings Boys Book of Simple Transistor Circuits Reference Tables Radio & Electronic Colour Codes & Data Chart Engineers & Machinist Crystal Set Construction A’ Comprehensive Radio Valve Guide, Book 1 ‘A Comprehensive Radio Valve Guide, Book 2 Boys Book of Crystal Sets and Simple Circuits Universal Gram-Motor Speed Indicator How to Make F.M. and TV Aerials, Bands 1, 2,3. 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