A.

BERTHELSEN - - Structural Contour Maps

Faltung. Geol. Rdsda., 45, S. 247--288, Stuttgart 1956. - - P L E S S M A N N , W. I Ober
sdfichtparaUele Gleitung. N. Jb. Geol. Pal~ont., Mh., 1957, S. 295----815, Stuttgart
1957. - - RUTSCn, R.F.: Die Bedeutung der Fossil-Deformation. Bull. Vet.
Schweiz. Petroleumgeol. u. -Ing., 49, S. 5---18, Bern 1949. - - SHARPE, D.: On
slaty Cleavage. Quart. J. Geol. Soc. of London, 8, S. 74--105, London 1947.
WEISS, L.E., MCINTYRE,D.B., ~K KORSTEN, M.: Contrasted Styles of Fol-
ding in the Rocks of Ord Ban, Mid-Strathspey. Geol, Mag., 42, S. 21--86, Hert-
ford 1955. - - WURSTER, P.: Beitfiige zur Analyse tektonisdaer Grundformen.
80 S., Wissenschaftliche Zulassungsarbeit, Tiibingen 1953.
Karten
Geologisdae Karten von Preul3en, herausgegeben v. pr. geol. L.-A., Berlin:
B1. 4910, Lindlar m. Eft., C. DIETZ & A. FUCHS, 1985; B1. 4911, Gummersbach
m. Erl., A. FUCHS & W. E. SCmaIDT, 1928.

STRUCTURAL CONTOUR MAPS APPLIED IN THE

ANALYSIS OF DOUBLE FOLD STRUCTURES

By ASGERBERTItELSEN~
Geological Survey of Greenland, Copenhagen, Denmark
With 4 Figures

Abstract
The application of structural contour maps based on data obtained from
surface mapping is outlined and the limits and the advantages of the method
when applied to double fold structures are discussed. An example is given
where the method is used in the analysis of a complex, triply folded Green-
landic structure.
Introduction
Within the last few years complex double fold structures have been
described from various regions. Among these the Scottish Highlands stand
out as the classical region, but examples of refolded structures have also
been described from other metamorphic terrains (HALLER, 1957) and even
from plutonic complexes (MmHoT, 1956, fig. 2). An extensive bibliography
of the Highland papers has recently been given by WmTTEN (1959).
The analysis of double fold structures is hampered by the inapplica-
bility of many of the empirical methods otherwise valuable by cylindrical or
semi-cylindrical folds. The procedure which is needed to bring out the
geometry and the kinematics of these intricate structures is still in a state
of development. The methods applied in each case must depend on the
particular geological conditions within each individual region.
The author would like to point out a method which has proved parti-
cularly valuable during his study of double and triple folded structures
in the pre-Cambrian of Western Greenland. These structures were found

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 Allgemeine und regionale Tektonik
by detailed mapping of granulite facies rocks which are in many respects
reminiscent of the Scourian complex in Scotland (SUTTON and WATSON,
1951). In the highly metamorphosed Greenlandic rocks, strike and dip
of the lithological banding and axes of minor folds (mesoscopic folds ac-
cording to the terminology of WEiss, see WEISS and MCINTYR~., 1957), are
the only measurable structural features. The double folding was thus
mainly realized from the pattern of the marker horizons on the finished
map and from occasional occurrences of refolded minor structures. In
these conditions, the structural contour map method seems to be the
only mean of performing an analysis.

Limits of application of the method

The use Of this method, depends on the following:
1. Detailed topographic maps with exact contours must be used in
mapping the structures.
2. The degree of exposure must be good enough to allow the accurate
mapping of marker horizons.
8. The area investigated must show a variation in altitude at least four
times greater than the contour interval of the topographic sheets (In
my work on Greenland, maps on a 1:20.000 scale with a contour
interval of 50 m proved quite adequate in an area of a diversified,
vertical variation of 200--500 m).
4. The refolded structures analysed must show an amplitude at least
ten times as great as the topographic contour interval.
(The Greenlandic structures are of the order of kilometers).
The advantage of the contour method is that it makes possible a two
dimensional construction of three dimensional problems and the results
can be presented in structural block diagrams by simple graphic transfer.
Refolded cylindrical structures which follow deformed axial laws can
only be solved by differential analysis, This means that the shape of the
structure should be determined as exactly as possible within as small a
part of the structure as is practically possible. The value of a measured
plane or line is very restricted. Naturally, the larger the original structures
and the larger the structures which result from refolding, the more valu-
able becomes the reading. When the folds are of the order of kilometers,
the reading may thus be considered as representative within a single
contour interval (50 m). But even when used with such reservation, the
validity of the bearing should wherever possible be checked (see below).
This relation also implies that the use of stereographic projections is
limited to very small areas. Each stereogram thus has to be constructed
from few readings, Nevertheless the method may serve as a very important
guide towards an understanding of the structures, an understanding which
should be obtained before the actual construction work is started (WEt-
MANN, 1929).
In subsurface contour maps one particular stratigraphical member is
normally used as reference horizon. Where structural contour maps are

460
 A. BERTHELSEN - - Structural Contour Maps
prepared from data obtained by surface mapping a full representation of
a single horizon can seldom be obtained. Generally, only parts of contour
maps of different marker horizons can be produced.
Procedure in preparation of structural contour maps
The geological map should be drawn directly on a topographic map and
all field readings should be indicated. Among the latter the most
valuable are those taken along the border of the marker horizons sub-
jected to analysis. This should be born in mind during the field work.
A piece of transparent paper is then fixed over the geological map.
The position of the structural contour lines now to be drawn is basically
controlled by the inter-relationship between the horizon studied and the
topographic surface. The map should now be scrutinised and all certain
contour lines drawn. Those accurately established help to control those
which are more questionable. A structural contour combines different
points of intersection between the geological horizon studied and a given
topographic contour. The more diversified the topography, the more exact
become the structural contours. Where topographic guide is lacking or
insufficient as on fiat-topped mountains, strike readings may help to define
the direction along which the structttral contour should be drawn, see fig. 1.
The distance between the structural contours is determined by the
inclination of the geological horizon studied. Dip readings therefore may
serve as guides towards a more exact evaluation of this distance. This
is easily performed when a "dip scale" is constructed. By means of a
protractor, different angles are set out on millimeter paper (when the
metric scale is used) and the lateral displacement of an under- or over-
lying contour caused by a given dip may be measured on this scale by
a pair of dividers and transferred to the map under construction, see
fig. 1.
The plunge of measured or constructed fold axes may be used in
a similar way. In this case, the lateral displacement of the neighbouring
contour has to be measured along the trend line of the axis, see also
fig. 1. (The term plunge is used in the sense adhered to by CLAaK and
MCINT~CaE, 1951).
As mentioned above this procedure should not be practiced without
control checks. Everywhere topographical data fixes the structural contour
pattern exactly it should be tried whether or not this pattern is in agree-
ment with that obtained by using the strike, dip and plunge information.
If there is no agreement, the check gives an indication of the amount
of deformation of planar or linear structures, information which can then
be used where topographic guide is insufficient. Where surface data of any
kind are lacking, maps prepared from under- or overlying horizons may be
useful tracing the contours through the gap.
Thus applied the structural contour method supplies a frame into
which all details may be fitted, or in other words, the structural details
help to construct the contours more exactly and a differential analysi s
is produced.
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 Allgemeine und regionale Tektonik
STRUCTURAL
CONTOURS
n
Topograph, . . . . t. . . .

, ~:~ _ ) A.... h . . . . . lidity of

dip readings may be checked

Horizon studied ~ "'~---I

~-~.~ ..... ".'/ The plunge i. . . . d here to
/, .-''}/~ f; fix the 250m horizon contour

'i t \ ~ ~ The dist. . . . bet. . . . the two

contour lines is calculated
/ "•K ~ "~'. from th. . . . . . . . . d d;ps

This bend is i "\~ 1 ~'~I~,~,'-~

inferred from
/
)~/ Jf
~/l'" ]" I|
strik dings
t..'[ ..// L Dip and plung . . . . d as above

';, .t 2i 4;'.,
"i +/"/"
/ / / The 250. m contour line is
'~ I ['- i- ~ ~ fixed exactly by the
"'~ I ~- .J" " topography alone

Fig. 1. Theoretical example showing how all available information should

be used in construction of the structural contours.

An example on the application of the method

Fig. 2 shows a very interesting structure, the Krebseso antiform wherin
three phases os superimposed folding may be discerned. This complex
antiform is found in the eastern part of the Tovqussaq peninsula, Sukker-
toppen district, Western Greenland (BEaTnELSEN, 1957).
The youngest phase os folding created a closed antiforrn (B. and R. WIL-
LIS, 1984, p. 61---62) flanked by two tightly compressed synforms. I n
fig. 8 A, this folding is recognized by the outcrop pattern os the ruled rock
formation. The general axial plunge is towards south or south-southeast.
462
 A . BEB.THELSEN - - Structural Contour Maps

r-
E

0
\55

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Krebseso structure. Tovgussap Nun~, Western

Greenland. Topography by the courtesy of the Geodetic Institute, Copenhagen.
The contour interval is 50 m and all heights in meters.

This antiform encloses a refolded, recumbent synform, the core rock of

which is shown stipled in fig. 8 B (second fold). The axis of the recumbent
synform trends SW-NE. The two hinge zones of the core layer show
an opposite plunge due to refolding around the younger antiform.
Enclosed within the refolded synformal structure and itself refolded
by this as well as by the youngest antiform there occurs finally a synform
structure. In fig. 3 C (first fold) the core layer of this oldest fold is shown
by broken lines.
This complexly built, triply folded structure is exceedingly well exposed
within a vertical range of 200 m with a diversified variation which just
463
 Allgemeine und regionale Tektonik

makes the application of the contour method profitable. To facilitate

comparison between fig. 2, 8 A, B and C and fig. 4, the borders of the
core layers of the second and the first fold structures are marked respec-
tively with the capitals U and K in all figures.
Fig. 4 shows the finished structural contour map of the oldest fold.
The border of the core layers is used as a reference horizon, and contours
for the hinge zones of the second Synform are drawn (U-contours). The
position of the western of these hinge zones is theoretical as it falls within
the actual Krebses~.

~ R,'n

....~
............. : :.~!:'
..z ...

..... f84 /
-""
. x~x. g
~"~ . ' ~ / - ""

~TTTT"[I THIRDFOLD SECONDFOLD ~ FIRSTFOLD

A B C
Fig. 8. A, B and C cover the same areas as the geological map of fig. 2. The
faults (. . . . . ) and the outlines of the Krebseso are indicated on all three
sketches to facilitate comparison with the geological map.

The hinge axis of the twice refolded, oldest synform is drawn as a

heavy line with arrows indicating the plunge of the axis. In the northern
part of the composite structure, the first-formed synform is highly in-
fluenced by refolding of the youngest anticlinel The upper flank of the
synform attains a vertical position just north of the Krebseso where the
hinge axis become horizontal.
Further to the south the axial plunge changes due to refolding around
the recumbent syncline. This change takes the hinge axis above the pre-
sent erosional surface. Tracing it further to the southeast, the hinge axis
culminates around the crest of the youngest antiform and plunges under
the present surface on the 850 mountain east of Krebseso. The refolding
by the second recumbent synform caused the oldest syn{orm to appear as
an antiform within its reversed flank.
The analysis of this oldest fold structure could hardly have been under-
taken without the application of the contour method. It should be added
464
 A. BERTHELSEN - - Structural Contour Maps

STI
of
olc

"Tr

I ~'//

Fig. 4. I: hinge axis of the first fold as shown by the K-surface. II: hinge axis
of the second synform as shown by the U-surface. The outlines of the Krebseso
are omitted so as not to disturb the contour pattern, but the fault lines are
retained to enable comparison with figs. 2 and 3.

that during the construction of the contour map shown in fig. 4, additional
information was obtained from stereographic projections which helped to
separate out smaller regions which could be treated as semi-cylindrical.
Furthermore, profiles parallel to the hinge axis of the second fold and
containing information on the U-surface were used to eludicate the contour
pattern of the fiat lying part of the K-Horizon, b u t such refinements can
only be applied when experience precludes the risk of misuse.

465
 Allgemeine und regionale Tektonik

Acknowledgment
The application of structural contour maps in the analysis of fold
structures has for m a n y years been taught to students in structural geology
b y Professor E. WEGMANN at Neuch~tel University. The author was thus
introduced to the method in 1954 while studying at Neuch~tel. Subse-
quent work in Greenland has shown that this method is not only useful
when dealing with refolded structures, but may be in many cases the only
method to produce a solution.
The manuscript was read b y Professor E. WEGMANN who most gene-
rously approved its publication. Dr. K. COE kindly corrected the Eng-
lish language.

References
BERTHELSE~,ASGER,1957: The structural evolution of an ultra- and polymeta-
morphie gneiss-complex, West Greenland. Geol. Rundschau, Bd. 46, Hft. 1, Seite
178--185. - - CLAaK, R.H., and MCINTYRE, D.B., 1951: The Use of the Terms
Pitch and Plunge. Am. Jour. Sci., v. 249, pp. 591 599. - - CLIFFOaD, P., FL~trrY,
M.J., RAMSAY, J.G., SUTTON J., and WATSON, J., 1957: The Development of
Lineation in Complex Fold Systems. Geol. Mag., Vol. XCIV, No. 1, Jan.-Feb.,
1957, pp. 1--24, 12 f i g s . - HALLEa, JoaN, 1957: Gekreuzte Faltensysteme in
Orogenzonen. Schweiz. Min. Petr. Mitt., Band 87, Heft 1, pp. 11--80, 5 figs and
8 plates. - - Micnor, PAUL, 1956: La g6ologie des zones profonds de l'~corce
terrestre. Ann. Soc. G~ol. de Belg. T. LXXX, pp. B 19--60, 1956--1957, 6 figs.
- - SUTTON, J., and WATSON, J., 1951: The pre-Torridonian metamorphic history
of the Loch Torridon and Scourie areas in the North-West Highlands, and
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of the Geol. Soc. of London, vol. CVI, pp. 241---808, plates XVII~XX, 14 figs.
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Finnlands. Bull. Comm. g~ol. Fin]. Nr. 87, pp. 98--127 (Helsinki). - - WErSS,L. E.:
and MCINTYaE, D.B., 1957: Structural Geometry of Dalradian Rocks at Loch
Leven, Scottish Highlands. Journ. of Geol., vol. 65, nr. 6, pp. 575----602, 13 figs.
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Soe. of Am., vol. 70, pp. 91--106, 12 figs. - - WmTTEN, E.H., 1959: A study
of two directions of folding: The structural geology of the Monadhliath and
Mid-Strathspey. Journ. of Geol. vol. 67, Jan. 59, hr. 1. pp. 14----47. - - WmLXS, B.,
and WIL~XS, R., 1984: Geologic Structures. McGraw-Hill Book Comp., Inc.
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466