SPE-197155-MS Produced Water Quality

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SPE-197155-MS

Best Practices and Technologies for Enhancing Produced Water Quality

Ramsey White and Abdullah Alhamoud, Saudi Arabian Oil Company

Copyright 2019, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition & Conference held in Abu Dhabi, UAE, 11-14 November 2019.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
of the paper have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect
any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written
consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may
not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
Objectives/Scope: A Saudi Aramco department operates 12 gas oil separation plants (GOSPs) that have
water-oil separators (WOSEPs) for produced water deoiling. The water is then injected back into the
reservoir to maintain pressure. This paper provides details of the operational best practices and technologies
for ensuring that the produced water is within specification.
Methods, Procedures, Process: A thorough analysis was conducted to determine the areas of improvement
by adjusting process parameters, enhancing the upstream process controls and implementing modifications
in the WOSEP. The impact of all changes was measured by monitoring the quality of produced water,
particularly the oil in water concentration, through frequent sampling. Moreover, design deficiencies were
observed, which led to the proposal of specific WOSEP internal upgrades and new technologies for
enhancing the deoiling performance. All recommendations were combined into a single roadmap for the
department.
Results, Observations, Conclusions: Significant improvements in produced water quality were observed.
This includes an 80% reduction in off-spec samples and a lower average oil in water concentration. The
roadmap also includes proposals for major upgrades to the existing WOSEP design.
Novel/Additive Information: The WOSEP performance roadmap provides innovative yet simple best
practices that can improve the deoiling efficiency. Moreover, it links WOSEP performance to process flow
stability.

Overview
Saudi Aramco operates more than 40 API or “gravity” water-oil separators (WOSEPs) at its gas-oil
separation plants (GOSPs) that deoil the produced water from the upstream production traps and desalting
train. The deoiled water is then discharged to salt water injection pumps for reinjection into the reservoir for
pressure maintenance. Water samples are frequently taken and analyzed to ensure oil-in-water concentration
specifications are met.
The GOSP receives wet crude oil from upstream oil wells via flowlines and trunklines. It then separates
it into dry crude oil, gas, and saltwater. The crude oil and gas products are discharged from the GOSP for
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further processing at downstream facilities. The saltwater is injected back into disposal wells for maintaining
reservoir pressure.
Wet crude flows to high pressure production traps (HPPTs), which are typically three phase separators,
where the pressure is controlled at a pressure between 150-450 psig, depending on the facility. The high
pressure gas is separated and sent to the gas gathering system. The HPPTs also separate free water from the
crude oil which is then discharged to the WOSEP for deoiling.
The wet crude from the HPPTs flows to the low pressure production trap (LPPT) where the pressure is
further let down to 50 psig. Low pressure gas is discharged to the gas gathering system. The crude is pumped
to the desalting train to remove emulsified water and reduce the salt content. The crude specification is 10
pounds of salt per thousand barrels of oil (PTB) and 0.2% Basic Sediment & Water (BS&W). Water from
the desalting train, which includes the separated emulsified water in the dehydrator and used wash water
from the desalter, is discharged to the WOSEP for deoiling.

Figure 1—Typical Oil Side Process

A typical WOSEP process with general setup of the internals is shown in figure 2. Oily water feed is
at 200-300 mg/l oil in water during normal conditions, but can reach 1000-2000 mg/l during upsets. For
most WOSEPs, the feed flow enters at the center of the vessel, then splits to either side through its central
compartment. The oil settles to the top by gravity separation and is skimmed off into crude buckets. The
level in the crude buckets is typically maintained by a level control loop with a level control valve (LCV)
as the final control element. The oil is recovered back to the LPPT. The deoiled water flows over the water
weir to the side compartments, where a level is maintained by a separate level control loop. The water
compartment feeds the water to the Salt Water Injection Pumps, which boosts the pressure from the WOSEP
operating pressure to the required pressure for reinjection into the reservoir.
SPE-197155-MS 3

Figure 2—Typical WOSEP Internals Design

In this split flow arrangement, the oil buckets are located at both ends of the central at an elevation of
4-6 inches above the water weir height. Due to the difference in oil and saline produced water densities,
an oil pad develops in the central compartment with a thickness dictated by the hydraulic balance between
the liquid level at the water weir and the level in the bulk compartment. The oil pad thickness depends on
the relative elevation of both weirs; the larger the difference in elevation the greater the oil pad thickness.
A typical Saudi Aramco WOSEP has plates at the top of the oil and water weirs that can reduce the height
difference by a maximum of one inch.

Figure 3—Typical WOSEP Crude Bucket with Adjustable Plate

Assessment of the Current WOSEP Design


An advantage of the bucket and weir design is that oil/water interface level does not require to be measured
and the oil/water interface level is determined by the height difference between the weir & bucket and the
relative densities of fluids. There are some disadvantages that lead to suboptimal deoiling performance and
process control:

• A height difference of even a few inches can cause the oil pad thickness (and volume) to be
substantial relative to the incoming oil in the feed. The requirement for oil pad generation leads
to the risk of re-entrainment from the bottom of the oil pad caused by the high velocity of the
produced water flow between the back of the bucket and the water weir. If sufficient entrainment
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occurs to where an oil layer develops at the water weir, the oil pad will not accumulate to a level
where skimming can occur. The oil concentration between the inlet and water outlets will remain
almost constant with minimal oil removal.
To mitigate the effect of the oil carryover, a skimming system made up of several nozzles at
the clean water compartments enables oil to be skimmed off manually. It is recommended for the
skimming line discharge to be routed to the low pressure separator to recover the oil.
• The WOSEP is equipped with an inlet pipe flow distributor to dissipate the inlet momentum,
prevent turbulent flow patterns and ensure proper flow distribution across the vessel cross-sectional
area of the vessel. Computational Fluid Dynamic Modeling of some of the older inlet pipe flow
distributor designs, in some Saudi Aramco WOSEPs, have shown non-ideal flow patterns, with
most of the feed discharging towards the end of the distributor at high momentum. This results in
turbulent flow patterns that are nonconducive to separation. If there are no calming baffles placed
downstream, “short-circuiting” within the separation volume (i.e., where a portion of oily-water
from the inlet pipe flows to the high velocity region underneath the crude buckets to the water
weir) is likely. Poor feed distribution and separation is further exacerbated by severe fluctuation in
the feed rate caused by poor upstream interface level control.
• Saudi Aramco WOSEPs are typically designed to have large volumes to handle produced water
rates above 150 to 250 thousand barrels per day. About 78% of the vessel length (i.e., from the
central inlet device to the water weir) is used for gravity oil-water separation while the remaining
22% is used for holding the “clean” deoiled water to feed feed the injection pumps. Ample hold-
up time for oil-water comes at the expense of short surge times in the water compartments, where
frequent and severe peaks in feed rate or downstream process pressures can negatively impact
the level and pressure control of the WOSEP. Figure 6 above shows the standard layout of a
typical Saudi Aramco WOSEP, which clearly has a small surge volume compared to the central
compartment.
Figure 7 below illustrates the difference in the quality of level control between two Saudi
Aramco WOSEPs, one of which has a larger surge compartment than the other. Generally, the larger
the surge volume, the more capable a level controller is in maintaining the level at the setpoint with
less severe deviation. WOSEP level controller parameters (i.e., controller gain & time constant)
can also be less aggressive to maintain the liquid level, leading to a smoother WOSEP outlet flow
and less recycling (energy wastage) from the injection pumps.

Figure 4—Illustration of Impact of Significant Oil Entrainment


SPE-197155-MS 5

Figure 5—Typical WOSEP Water Compartment Skimming System

Figure 6—Pipe Inlet Distributor & Standard WOSEP Layout

Figure 7—Liquid Level in WOSEP with High Surge Volume vs. Low Surge Volume
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Enhancing Performance – Current WOSEP Design


The performance of the WOSEPs at GOSPs in Saudi Aramco are frequently monitored to ensure the
produced water quality specification for reinjection to the reservoir is met. Certain best practices were
adopted to maintain adequate WOSEP performance, particularly of the crude bucket and weir design.

Stabilizing WOSEP Feed


The feed rate to the WOSEP normally fluctuates, depending on the quality of the interface level control of
upstream separated components. Poor upstream interface level control can lead to severe feed fluctuations,
which exacerbates the poor distribution of oily-water in the WOSEP, increasing the likelihood of oil
carryover into the clean water compartments. Furthermore, the higher the feed rate to the WOSEP, the less
retention time there is for oil-water separation.
Figure 8 below is a comparison of the variability in feed rate of two actual WOSEPs in Saudi Aramco,
represented as as a percentage of the WOSEP capacity. The blue line, which represents the feed rate as a
percentage of the WOSEP capacity, shows severe variability in feed to a WOSEP at one facility. The red line
represents a lower feed variability to a different WOSEP. Both WOSEPs have the same dimensions, capacity,
and internal design. The upstream separators, the nature of emulsions and the demulsifier concentrations
are also similar.

Figure 8—Feed Rate Variability of two actual WOSEPs as % of capacity

Table 1 is a comparison of their feed variability and deoiling performance of the two WOSEPs. Despite
having a higher average rate, severe feed rate variations from 55-118% of the WOSEP capacity leads to
about a third of the samples being off-spec. For the WOSEP with normal feed rate variations of 55-94% of
WOSEP capacity, none of the samples were off-spec.

Table 1—Comparison of WOSEP Feed Fluctuation & Impact on Deoiling

Feed Condition Severe Fluctuation Normal Fluctuation

Average Feed Rate as % of Capacity 90% 75%

Maximum Feed Rate as % of Capacity 118% 94%

Minimum Feed Rate as % of Capacity 55% 55%

Standard Deviation as % Capacity 12% 8%

Off-Spec Oil-in-Water Samples 33% 0%


SPE-197155-MS 7

Based on the comparison of the WOSEPs, stabilizing the inlet feed rate will improve the deoiling
performance. It will also be easier for the WOSEP level controller to maintain the level at the set point with
less outlet flow variability.
Several measures were taken by Saudi Aramco to reduce the feed rate fluctuations:

• Tuning Interface Controllers of Upstream 3-Phase Separators and Electrostatic Coalescer to allow
for some variation of interface level (±5% of set point). This reduces the variability of the controller
output, which in turn reduces the water flow variability to the WOSEP.
• Replacing large and oversized control valves of the upstream separators with smaller control valves
that satisfy the maximum expected rates, has a major impact on reducing the feed variability.
Oversized control valves increase the severity of the feed rate variability. This also applies to the
separator oil level control valves, which has an impact on the dehydrator interface level controller
performance, and variability of feed rate to the WOSEP.
• If the production rate of a facility with multiple separator trains is reduced, the full production can
be diverted to fewer trains, if there is flexibility to do so. This allows for the separators and control
valves to operate closer to the design rate, leading to better control. It will also eliminate one source
of water to the WOSEP, thereby reducing the feed rate variablity.
• At some facilities, the dehydrator interface level controller manipulates two control valves, a
smaller control valve and larger one, with the same tuning parameters in a split-range configuration.
Aggressive tuning is required for the smaller control valve for adequate interface level control, but
the same aggressive tuning causes the large control valve to open too quickly, which contributes
to the WOSEP feed variability and surges. To ensure adequate interface control and a more stable
outlet water flow from the dehydrator, it is recommended to segregate the controllers of the LCVs,
so that the larger control valve can be controlled with a less aggressive controller.

Figure 9—Representation of Dehydrator Dual Level Controllers

Maintaining a Sufficient Interface Level in Upstream Separators


Saudi Aramco WOSEPs are designed for a normal (continuous) inlet oil-in-water concentration of 200-400
mg/l. They are capable of handling higher oil-in-water concentrations, but only intermittently. A continuous
feed of high oil-in-water concentrations will increase the likelihood of oil carry over with the disposal water.
One Saudi Aramco WOSEP was experiencing occasional off-spec disposal water despite operating well
below the WOSEPs design capacity. To troubleshoot the problem, the valve on the oil recovery line to the
LPPT was closed, to ensure oil was being separated and to determine the rate of oil accumulation. After a
90 minute period, the oil volume was calculated and divided by the water rate to determine the oil-in-water
concentration. The concentration of the disposal water based on the rate of oil skimmed into the bucket was
found to be >1300 mg/l, and it does not take into account the oil that has been entrained with the water.
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Figure 10—Oil Bucket Level during Temporary Closure of the Oil Outlet Line

The fast rate of accumulation in the WOSEP crude bucket indicates a significant and continuous carry
under of free oil from the upstream separators. It was found that high inlet oil-in-water concentration
was attributed to poor interface level control in one of the upstream separators. This was due to severe
fluctuations in interface level that led to drops well below the set point. No other interface level controller
demonstrated this behavior in the facility. It is recommended practice, in addition to installing a liquid vortex
breaker, to maintain a stable interface level well above the outlet water nozzle (i.e., up to three times the
outlet nozzle diameter [1]). The interface level set point was raised to reduce the likelihood of oil carryunder.
Moreover, the vessel will be upgraded with a higher weir height and longer level measurement range to
improve the interface level controllability.

Preventing Demulsifier Overdose


Demulsifier is injected in the manifold upstream the 3-Phase Separator to neutralize the stabilizing effect
of emulsifying agents, so that water droplets can freely coalesce and separate by gravity. Overdosing of the
chemical can result in enhanced stability of the emulsion, leading to rag layers or pads inside the separators.
[2] Reverse emulsions can occur as a result of overdosing, and since the oil-in-water is in the form of an
emulsion (i.e., not free oil), it will not be separated by gravity.
One Saudi Aramco WOSEP experienced high oil-in-water despite producing water well below the design
capacity. The nature of the water was clearly emulsified, with no free oil forming on the top. An assessment
of the upstream process showed that more than 95% of the water was separated in the 3-phase separator.
Typically 40-60% of the water is separated in the HPPT, so this was considered to be high and a sign
of demulsifier overdose. Demulsifier concentration in wet crude reached around 60 ppm. Oil-in-water
concentration was greater than 850 mg/l at this concentration.
Demulsifier dosage was reduced to concentration in wet crude of 25-30 ppm while ensuring the crude
desalting process was not impacted. More than 90% of the water was still separated in the HPPT. Produced
water quality improved dastrically, reducing to below 60 mg/l. Figure 11 shows the relationship bewtween
demulsifier concentration in wet crude vs. resultant oil-in-water concentration.
SPE-197155-MS 9

Figure 11—Demulsifier Concentration in Wet Crude vs. Oil-in-Water Concentration

Adjusting Crude and Water Weir Heights


As previously mentioned, Saudi Aramco WOSEPs are designed with a 4-6” height difference between the
oil and water weirs. The original designs were based on a water specific gravity of 1.09-1.13. These specific
gravities, which are of the original connate water, are at or near the saturation limit of salt in water. Overtime,
as lower salinity water is injected in the reservoir, the produced water specific gravity was significantly
reduced. This resulted in a 25-30% increase in the required oil pad thickness to hydrostatically balance with
the water level at the water weir, increasing the risk of re-entrainment from the bottom of the oil pad, with
the flow of produced water between the back of the bucket and the water weir.
Both the oil and water weir heights were adjusted to reduce the oil pad thickness at some facilities. The
average concentration of oil-in-water was reduced from 55 mg/l to 45 mg/l as a result of the weir height
adjustment. If the weirs heights are not adjustable, the crude weir can be physically altertered by cutting
square or “V” notches. Care must be taken to ensure the crude weir elevation at the bottom of the notch is
higher than the water weir height to ensure an oil pad can still form.

Further Enhancing WOSEP Performance


Optimizing the process conditions and implementing minor internal modifications will improve the deoiling
performance of the API gravity separator, but the extent of improvements depends on the oil droplet size
distribution. Dispersed oil should be measured in the field when troubleshooting and/or upgrading systems,
whenever possible. Typical gravity separators have a potential effluent quality down to 100-150 micron oil
droplets, depending on the retention time, oil/water density difference, and water viscosity. [3]
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Figure 12—Sample Histogram of Oil Droplet Distribution and Oil Volume Distribution Curve [3]

Table 2—Produced Water Treating Methods [3]

Method Equipment Type Drop Size Removal (Microns)

Gravity Separation API Separators, Skimmer Tanks 100-150

Parallel Plate Interceptors,


Plate Coalescence 30-50
Corrugated Plate Interceptors

Gas Flotation Dissolved Gas Flotation, Induced Gas Glotation 10-20

Enhanced Gravity Separation Hydrocyclones, Centrifuges 10-30

Filtration Multimedia Membrane 1+

Upgrading the gravity separator with various high efficiency internals will improve the performance
and capacity of produced water deoiling. Plate packs can be installed to enhance coalescence of the oil
droplets, thereby substantially increasing their rise velocities (4). One stage or two stages of inlet distributor
baffles are recommended to reduce flow turbulance, ensure even flow across the plate packs, prevent
droplet shearing and create an environment more conducive to oil droplet coalescence. Some vendors have
proprietary inlet devices that can further improve the dampening of the inlet momentum and minimize
droplet shear.
Enhancing the deoiling capabilities of the WOSEP with high efficiency internals will improve the
quality and increase capacity, but increasing the WOSEP throughput will only exacerbate the level and
pressure control issues as previously explained. Changes to the internal setup of the WOSEP, which includes
recompartmentalization — to reduce the size of the coalescence section, and increase the surge compartment
capacity and weir heights — may be considered.
SPE-197155-MS 11

Conclusion
The paper introduces best practices that were adopted by Saudi Aramco to maintain adequate WOSEP
performance, particularly of the crude bucket and weir design:

• Stabilizing WOSEP feed and reducing the overall feed rate variability will improve the deoiling
performance. It will also be easier for the WOSEP level controller to maintain the level at the set
point with less outlet flow variability. This can be achieved through:

◦ Upstream interface level controller tuning.

◦ Replacing oversized separator interface level control valves.

◦ Rerouting production to fewer trains to operate nearer to design (optimum) capacity.

◦ Implementing single input-dual output control strategy for electrostatic coalescers with two
interface level control valves of different sizes.
• Maintaining adequate interface level in the upstream separators to reduce the likelihood of oil
carryunder.
• Preventing overdose of demulsifier, which causes oil-in-water emulsions.

• If the WOSEP crude and water weirs are equipped with adjustable weir heights, then decrease the
oil weir height and increase the water weir height to reduce the oil pad thickness.
Upgrading the gravity separator with various high efficiency internals will improve the performance and
capacity of produced water deoiling. This can be done by installing a new inlet device, distribution baffles,
and plate packs. Recompartmentalizing the WOSEP by reducing the size of the coalescence section (but
increasing its separation efficiency), and increasing the surge compartment capacity, will improve level and
pressure control of the vessel, while maintaining or increasing deoiling capacity.

References
1. Manning, Franci S. Oilfield Processing: Crude Oil; Volume 2. 1995. P 88
2. Kokal, S.L., “Crude Oil Emulsions,” SPE Petroleum Engineers Handbook; Volume I. 2003 P
I–565
3. Stewart, Maurice and Kend Arnold. Produced Water Treatment Field Manual. Gulf Professional
Pub., 2011 P 12–18
4. Stewart, Maurice and Kend Arnold. Produced Water Treatment Field Manual. Gulf Professional
Pub., 2011 P 40

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