CHAPTER 3

TIMSS 2019
Context Questionnaire
Framework

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
CHAPTER 3

TIMSS 2019 Context Questionnaire

Framework
Martin Hooper
Ina V.S. Mullis
Michael O. Martin
Bethany Fishbein

At both the fourth and eighth grades, students participating in TIMSS complete questionnaires about
their experiences, instruction, and attitudes toward learning mathematics and science. Their teachers
and school principals complete questionnaires to provide data about school and classroom resources
and approaches, and parents of fourth graders fill out a questionnaire about students’ home contexts for
learning. To better understand national contexts and policies, representatives from each participating
country complete a curriculum questionnaire and contribute a chapter to the TIMSS 2019 Encyclopedia.
Students taking TIMSS using a computer or tablet also fill out a short questionnaire about their
experiences with computers and the Internet.
The TIMSS questionnaires have undergone a process of evolution and development since TIMSS
was first administered in 1995, a process that continually sought to improve the quality and relevance
of the data while keeping the response burden on principals, teachers, students, and parents to a
minimum. In each four year assessment cycle, the questionnaire development team at the TIMSS &
PIRLS International Study Center worked with the TIMSS Questionnaire Item Review Committee
(QIRC) to review the questionnaires and suggest ways to update them—including adding new topics,
refining individual questions, and deleting questions or topics that are no longer useful.
The TIMSS 2019 Context Questionnaire Framework describes those aspects of the learning context
to be addressed by the TIMSS 2019 questionnaires, together with a rationale for why they should be
included and research literature references as appropriate.
As a study of trends in student achievement and mathematics, TIMSS’ first priority in characterizing
the educational context is to gather data on policy relevant and malleable attributes of the home and
school that can help interpret achievement changes from assessment to assessment. Where possible,
such contextual data are summarized as context questionnaire scales that are used to measure changes
from one assessment to the next. Relating changes in student achievement to changes in educational
policies or practice can be a powerful source of evidence that the policy or practice is beneficial for
student learning.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 59
 For example, TIMSS 2015 reported differences from TIMSS 2011 on a number of background scales
such as the Early Literacy and Numeracy Activities scale and the Students Like Learning Mathematics
scale. TIMSS 2019 plans to improve and expand trend measurement using these and other scales.
The TIMSS 2019 Context Questionnaires have the dual purpose of linking to the past and building
a bridge to the future. The world is changing in important ways, and so are educational policies and
practices around the world. It is important for the TIMSS 2019 Context Questionnaires to reflect these
changes. This will be managed by updating aspects of existing scales to reflect new and improved
understandings of the constructs being measured, and also by including new scales about important
aspects of educational effectiveness.
The framework also includes other topics that are important to TIMSS participating countries and
education researchers but have not been shown to be related to achievement on the TIMSS assessment.
These topics are generally considered to be important aspects of the education systems and beneficial
for student learning, and TIMSS plays a key role in collecting data on these topics in the international
context. For example, through the curriculum questionnaire and TIMSS Encyclopedia, TIMSS plays an
important role in documenting international trends in curricular policy and other educational policies.
However, many country level policies do not show a direct relationship with TIMSS achievement.
The remainder of this chapter details the topics to be covered in the TIMSS 2019 context
questionnaires. The chapter is structured to focus on five broad areas:
• Community and national policies
• Home contexts
• School contexts
• Classroom contexts
• Student attitudes toward learning

Community and National Policies

Countries, regions, and communities make key educational policy decisions about the curriculum and
how it is best implemented. Primarily through the TIMSS Encyclopedia and curriculum questionnaires,
TIMSS 2019 will cover five broad national and community policies:
• Intended mathematics and science curriculum
• Language(s) of instruction
• Student flow
• Teacher education
• Principal certification

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 60
Intended Mathematics and Science Curriculum
Since 1995, TIMSS has collected extensive data on the content of the intended curriculum. Whether
formulated at the national, community, or school level, curricular documents define and communicate
the curriculum, providing expectations for students in terms of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes to
be developed or acquired through their formal mathematics and science education.
Internationally, mathematics and science curricula differ across countries and are constantly
evolving. In mathematics, countries differ in the degree of emphasis they place on acquiring basic skills,
memorizing rules, procedures, or facts, understanding mathematical concepts, applying mathematics
to “real life” situations, communicating or reasoning mathematically, and problem solving in everyday
situations. In science, countries vary in the extent that they focus on acquiring basic science facts,
understanding and applying science concepts, formulating hypotheses, designing and conducting
investigations to test hypotheses, using inquiry-based learning, and communicating scientific
explanations. Differences in the structure of the science curriculum can result in different experiences
for students in different countries. By the eighth grade, some countries teach science as separate subjects
(biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science), and others teach it as one integrated subject.
Continuing previous practices, countries will provide summaries of their fourth and eighth grade
mathematics and science curricula in the TIMSS 2019 Encyclopedia and answer questions about their
curricula in the curriculum questionnaire. Collecting data on curricular content over time can provide
insights into the evolution of national curricula. For example, the TIMSS 2015 Encyclopedia (Mullis,
Martin, Goh, & Cotter, 2016) found that countries are increasingly incorporating problem solving
into their mathematics curricula and are incorporating inquiry and investigative skills into the science
curricula. To an increasing extent, curricula are also emphasizing the integration of technology into
mathematics and science learning.

Language(s) of Instruction
A multilingual population can increase the challenge of implementing the mathematics and science
curricula, and for these reasons the TIMSS 2019 Encyclopedia will contain information about languages
of instruction. Some countries have one commonly spoken language, while others are historically
multilingual. Immigration also can increase the language diversity in countries. Most of the TIMSS
participating countries deliver instruction in multiple languages.

Student Flow
TIMSS 2019 will continue collecting data on student flow through the education system through the
curriculum questionnaire. Student flow decisions made at the national and community levels include
decisions on access to preprimary education, age of entry into formal education, and policies on grade
retention and educational tracking.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 61
 • Preprimary Education—Even before they begin formal primary school, children receive
considerable exposure to literacy, numeracy, and science as part of their preprimary educational
experience (e.g., preschool, Kindergarten). Preprimary education is an area of investment for
many countries. Research findings indicate that attendance at preprimary programs can have a
positive effect on academic outcomes (Duncan & Magnusson, 2013). As described in the TIMSS
2015 Encyclopedia (Mullis, Martin, Goh, & Cotter, 2016), almost all countries participating in
TIMSS 2015 provided universal preprimary education for children age 3 or older, and a number
of countries also sponsored universal programs for children younger than 3 years old.
• Age of Entry—Policies about the age of entry into formal education (first year of primary
school, ISCED Level 1) are important for understanding achievement as well as the variation
in students’ ages across countries at the fourth grade (Martin, Mullis, & Foy, 2011). Typically,
across the TIMSS countries, students enter primary school at ages 5 to 7.
• Grade Retention—Because TIMSS is a grade-based study, the degree of grade retention can be
an important factor to consider when evaluating achievement results. Research has shown that
grade retention does not have a positive relationship with student achievement or the emotional
well-being of the student and is overall inefficient (García-Pérez, Hidalgo-Hidalgo, & Robles-
Zurita, 2014; Hattie, 2009). Many TIMSS countries practice automatic promotion, especially in
the primary grades (Mullis, Martin, Goh, & Cotter, 2016).
• Tracking—Some education systems address differential student abilities and interests by
assigning students to different schools that provide academic or vocational routes. A breadth
of literature has suggested that tracking students into different schools or routes early in the
educational process can exacerbate differences in student achievement (Hanushek & Wößmann,
2006; Marks, 2005; Parker, Jerrim, Schoon, & Marsh, 2016; Schütz, Ursprung, & Wößmann,
2008; Van de Werfhorst & Mijs, 2010). Given that educational tracking can begin as early
as middle school, the timing and extent of educational tracking is especially important for
interpreting the eighth grade results.

Teacher Education
In every country, teachers are the primary implementers of the curriculum, so teacher education policies
and practices are a major interest. TIMSS 2019 will collect information about teacher preparation,
certification, and professional development. As described in the TIMSS 2015 Encyclopedia, many
countries have increased the educational requirements for teachers, particularly for primary school
teachers as well as secondary school science teachers. As of 2015, almost all TIMSS countries called for
fourth and eighth grade teachers to have a four year degree from a university, and the percentage of
teachers at both grade levels who had a bachelor’s degree increased from 2007. A number of countries

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 62
have also strengthened the requirements for entry to teacher education programs, with some requiring
that prospective teachers achieve a minimum grade point average or pass an examination.

Principal Certification
Given the central role principals play in managing teachers, students, and school resources, TIMSS will
continue collecting data on national principal certification policies. To encourage the development of
strong leadership skills, some countries have specific education and training requirements for principals,
such as the completion of certification programs in school leadership or specialized principal training
programs.

Home Contexts
Parents or guardians and the general home environment are very influential on children’s upbringing
and their success in school. To better understand the effects of the home context on student achievement
in mathematics and science, TIMSS 2019 will collect data through the home questionnaire given to the
parents or caregivers of fourth grade students, supplemented by the student questionnaire at the fourth
and eighth grades. This will include the following topics:
• Home resources for learning
• Language(s) spoken in the home
• Early literacy and numeracy activities
• Preprimary education

Home Resources for Learning

In education research, the aspects of home background that show the most consistent association
with student achievement tend to be those that measure the socioeconomic status of the parents or
caregivers (Dahl & Lochner, 2012; Davis-Kean, 2005; Martin, Foy, Mullis, & O’Dwyer, 2013; Sirin, 2005;
Willms, 2006). Socioeconomic status is often indicated through proxy variables such as parental level
of education, income, occupational class, and the number of books in the home. TIMSS has developed
two scales that expand upon the classic conception of socioeconomic status to include home resources
with the potential to facilitate student learning (e.g., an Internet connection): 1) the fourth grade
TIMSS Home Resources for Learning scale based primarily on data from the home questionnaire, and
2) the eighth grade Home Educational Resources scale based on the data from the eighth grade student
questionnaire. These two scales have shown a strong positive relationship with students’ mathematics
and science achievement in previous TIMSS cycles, and also will be included in TIMSS 2019.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 63
Language(s) Spoken in the Home
TIMSS 2019 will collect information from students and parents on the language the child speaks in the
home. Internationally, there are many reasons why some children speak a different language in the home
than they do in the school. Some countries have numerous national languages and in these countries it
is not uncommon for students to speak one language at home and another at school. Speaking another
language in the home can also be common among immigrant families. In addition, some parents
prioritize multilingualism and make great efforts to ensure their child is exposed to more than one
language in the home.

Early Literacy and Numeracy Activities

Children’s first teachers are their parents/guardians. The TIMSS 2019 home questionnaire will ask the
parents/guardians of fourth grade students to provide information on the frequency that they engaged
their child in early literacy and numeracy activities before beginning primary school. The questionnaire
also will ask parents to report how well their child could do certain literacy and numeracy tasks upon
entering primary school.
Considerable research, including results from TIMSS and PIRLS, has documented the importance
of early childhood learning activities and their relationship with student achievement and other
educational outcomes (Anders et al., 2012; Gustafsson, Hansen, & Rosén, 2013; Hart & Risley, 2003;
Hooper, 2017; Melhuish et al., 2008; Sarama & Clements, 2009; Sénéchal & LeFevre, 2002; Skwarchuk,
Sowinski, & LeFevre, 2014).
Engaging children in early numeracy activities can stimulate their interest in mathematics and
enhance the development of their numeracy skills (Anders et al., 2012; Claessens & Engel, 2013;
Melhuish et al., 2008; Sarama & Clements, 2009). These activities include playing with blocks or
construction toys, saying counting rhymes or singing counting songs, playing games involving shapes,
and playing other types of games that involve quantitative reasoning. Students who have early numeracy
skills when entering school often have higher achievement in primary school (Duncan et al., 2007;
Princiotta, Flanagan, & Hausken, 2006).
As recently demonstrated by analyses of TIMSS and PIRLS 2011 data (Gustafsson et al., 2013;
Punter, Glas, & Meelissen, 2016), both early numeracy and literacy activities are related to a child’s
fourth grade achievement in mathematics, science, and reading. The association between early literacy
activities and mathematics achievement could be linked to the fact that completing numeracy tasks
often requires reading skills (Mullis, Martin, & Foy, 2013).

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 64
Preprimary Education
TIMSS 2019 will collect data from parents on the duration of their child’s preprimary school
attendance—consistently identifying a positive relationship between duration of preprimary attendance
and student achievement. Much research has detailed the importance of preprimary education (e.g.,
preschool, Kindergarten, early childhood education programs) on fostering higher academic outcomes
(Duncan & Magnusson, 2013). It is argued that high quality preprimary education and other early
childhood interventions are especially beneficial for disadvantaged students because they can play an
important role in breaking the generationally repetitive cycle of poverty and low achievement (Duncan
& Sojourner, 2013; Heckman & Masterov, 2007).

School Contexts
A school’s environment and organization can be an important determinant of effectiveness in reaching
curricular goals. Accepting that an effective school is not simply a collection of discrete attributes, but
rather a well managed, integrated system where each action or policy directly affects all other parts,
the TIMSS 2019 school questionnaire will focus on a set of well researched school quality indicators:
• School characteristics and demographics
• Instruction affected by mathematics and science resource shortages
• School emphasis on academic success
• Parents’ perception of their child’s school
• Safe and orderly schools
• Student bullying
• Sense of school belonging

School Characteristics and Demographics

To provide key contextual information about schools, the TIMSS 2019 school questionnaire will collect
data from principals on a number of school characteristics including school size, school location, and
school composition by economic status and language use. In addition, principals are asked about the
proportion of the students who enter school with various early literacy and numeracy skills.
TIMSS results have typically included data on school composition by economic status,
measured by principals’ estimates of the percentage of students from advantaged and disadvantaged
backgrounds. Since the Coleman report (Coleman et al., 1966), there has been great emphasis on how
the socioeconomic composition of the student body is associated with individual student achievement
(Martin, Foy, Mullis, & O’Dwyer, 2013; Rumberger & Palardy, 2005; Sirin, 2005). There is evidence that

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 65
students from disadvantaged backgrounds may have higher achievement if they attend schools where
the majority of students are from advantaged backgrounds. Some have attributed this association to
peer effects—observing a strong relationship between students and their classmates (Sacerdote, 2011).
The higher achievement for students in socioeconomically advantaged schools may also be partially
explained by such schools having better facilities, instructional materials, and teachers. For example,
in some countries, schools with high proportions of disadvantaged students have difficulty attracting
highly qualified teachers (Akiba, LeTendre, & Scribner, 2007; Clotfelter, Ladd, & Vigdor, 2010).

Instruction Affected by Mathematics or Science Resource Shortages

Adequate working conditions and facilities, as well as sufficient instructional resources, are important for
maintaining a favorable learning environment in schools (Cohen, McCabe, Michelli, & Pickeral, 2009).
Although “adequacy” in terms of resources can be relative, the extent and quality of school resources
have been shown to be critical for quality instruction (Glewwe, Hanushek, Humpage, & Ravina, 2011;
Hanushek, 1997; Hanushek & Wößmann, 2017; Lee & Barro, 2001; Lee & Zuze, 2011). Results from
TIMSS international reports indicate that students in schools that are well resourced generally have
higher achievement than those in schools where shortages of resources affect the capacity to implement
the curriculum.
Through the Instruction Affected by Mathematics Resource Shortages scale and the Instruction
Affected by Science Resource Shortages scale, both based on principal reports, TIMSS 2019 will measure
how general and subject-specific resource shortages affect curriculum implementation. General
resources include teaching materials, supplies, school buildings and grounds, heating/cooling and
lighting systems, classroom space, technology-based equipment such as electronic whiteboards,
computers and tablets, videos, and Internet access. Subject-specific resources for mathematics and
science may include subject-specific software/applications, calculators, laboratory equipment, and
instructional materials. In addition, TIMSS typically collects information on whether the school has
a library or media center and a science laboratory, as well as the number of computers in the school.

School Emphasis on Academic Success

TIMSS 2019 will ask teachers and principals about the extent to which their school emphasizes academic
success. Overall, a positive school atmosphere with high expectations for academic excellence can
contribute to the success of a school. Following the TIMSS and PIRLS 2011 school effectiveness study
(Martin, Foy, Mullis, & O’Dwyer, 2013), TIMSS 2015 results showed a positive association between
academic achievement and a school’s emphasis on academic success. Aligning with the literature on
academic optimism (Hoy, Tarter, & Hoy, 2006; McGuigan & Hoy, 2006; Wu, Hoy, & Tarter, 2013),
indicators for the TIMSS measure of school emphasis on academic success include school administrators’

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 66
and teachers’ expectations for successful curriculum implementation and student achievement, parental
support for student achievement, and the students’ desire to achieve.
Schools can also vary on how much they specifically emphasize preparing students in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects. The results from TIMSS Advanced 2015,
which assessed students at the end of secondary school, showed a relationship between the degree a
school supports advanced mathematics and physics education and achievement. Indicators of school
STEM support include school initiatives promoting student interest in the subjects, such as after school
activities, as well as STEM-specific professional development programs for teachers.

Parents’ Perceptions of Their Child’s School

TIMSS 2019 will collect information on what parents think about their child’s school, by asking
parents to indicate their level of agreement with statements that evaluate the school academically as
well as school safety and the extent that schools communicate with and involve parents in their child’s
education. TIMSS 2015 results show that most parents tended to be satisfied with the school their child
attended, which is consistent with results from other educational surveys (Barrows, Peterson, & West,
2017; Stacer & Perrucci, 2013).

Safe and Orderly Schools

TIMSS 2019 will ask teachers and principals to report on school safety and discipline. TIMSS reports
have consistently shown a positive relationship between student achievement and teachers’ and
principals’ reports that the school is safe and orderly, and school effectiveness research analyzing TIMSS/
PIRLS 2011 data showed that school safety was an important predictor of student achievement in many
countries (Martin, Foy, Mullis, & O’Dwyer, 2013). Respect for individual students and teachers, a safe
and orderly environment, and constructive interactions among administrators, teachers, parents, and
students all contribute to a positive school climate and are associated with higher student achievement
(Cohen et al., 2009; Greenberg, Skidmore, & Rhodes, 2004; Konishi, Hymel, Zumbo, & Li, 2010).
The sense of security that comes from having few behavioral problems and little or no concern about
student or teacher safety at school promotes a stable learning environment. A general lack of discipline,
especially if students and teachers are afraid for their safety, does not facilitate learning and is related to
lower academic achievement (Milam, Furr-Holden, & Leaf, 2010; Stanco, 2012). Schools where there
are clear rules and more fairness tend to have atmospheres of greater discipline and safety (Cohen et
al., 2009; Gottfredson, Gottfredson, Payne, & Gottfredson, 2005).

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 67
Student Bullying
TIMSS 2019 will ask students to report the frequency with which they are bullied. Previous TIMSS
reports have shown that bullied students tend to have lower mathematics and science achievement,
aligning with findings of other research (Glew, Fan, Katon, & Rivara, 2008; Konishi et al., 2010; Rothon,
Head, Klineberg, & Stansfeld, 2011; Rutkowski, Rutkowski, & Engel, 2013). Bullying is repeated
aggressive behavior that is intended to harm students who are physically or psychologically less strong,
and takes a variety of forms ranging from name calling to inflicting mental and physical harm. Bullying
causes distress to victims, leads to low self-esteem, and makes victims feel like they do not belong (Glew
et al., 2008). With the prevalence of the Internet, cyberbullying unfortunately appears to be common
among students; and, like other bullying, cyberbullying, is associated with low self-esteem, distress, and
poor achievement (Mishna, Cook, Gadalla, Daciuk, & Solomon, 2010; Tokunaga, 2010).

Sense of School Belonging

TIMSS 2019 will collect data from students on their sense of school belonging. TIMSS 2015 results
showed an association between school belonging and academic achievement, corroborating other
research on the subject (Cohen et al., 2009; McMahon, Wernsman, & Rose, 2009). In addition, students’
sense of belonging to their school, also referred to as school connectedness, contributes to their general
well-being (Joyce & Early, 2014; McLellan & Steward, 2015; Renshaw, Long, & Cook, 2015). Students
with a strong sense of belonging feel safe at school, enjoy school, and have good relationships with
teachers and classmates.

Classroom Contexts
Because most teaching and learning in school takes place in the classroom, successful learning is likely
to be influenced by the classroom environment and instructional activities. Through the teacher and
student questionnaires, TIMSS 2019 will focus on the following factors and practices that are influential
to teaching and learning:
• Teacher preparation and experience
• TIMSS mathematics and science topics taught
• Instructional time
• Instructional practices and strategies
• Instructional clarity
• Supportive classroom climate
• Use of technology in instruction
• Challenges faced by teachers

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 68
Teacher Preparation and Experience
Through the teacher questionnaire, TIMSS 2019 will collect extensive data on teacher preparation,
professional development, and teaching experience. Preparation is critical for effective teaching
(Darling-Hammond, 2000; Hill, Rowan, & Ball, 2005), and prospective teachers need coursework to
gain knowledge in the subjects that they will teach, to understand about how students learn, and to learn
about effective pedagogy in teaching mathematics and science.
Professional development through seminars, workshops, and conferences can help teachers
increase their effectiveness and broaden their knowledge (Blank & de las Alas, 2009; Yoon, Duncan,
Lee, Scarloss, & Shapley, 2007). Professional development is especially important for exposing teachers
to recent developments such as curricular changes or new technology for classroom instruction. The
TIMSS 2015 Encyclopedia shows that many countries are increasing efforts to provide teachers with
professional development opportunities.
In addition to education and training, teaching experience is essential, and the first years of teaching
are especially important for teacher development (Harris & Sass, 2011; Leigh, 2010). Research also has
found that teachers continue to develop pedagogical skills after five years of experience, and that this
development can positively affect student achievement (Harris & Sass, 2011).

TIMSS Mathematics and Science Topics Taught

Since the first cycle of TIMSS in 1995, TIMSS has collected extensive data on the implemented
curriculum—documenting the extent to which the mathematics and science topics in the TIMSS
frameworks are covered in the classroom. TIMSS 2019 will collect this information by asking the
mathematics and science teachers of the participating students to indicate whether each of the topics
assessed has been covered in class in current or previous years.

Instructional Time
Key to curriculum implementation is the amount of instructional time teachers have to teach the
mathematics and science curricula. For this reason, TIMSS 2019 will collect information from teachers
and principals on instructional time. TIMSS results show that there is variation among countries in the
intended instructional time prescribed by the curriculum and in the actual time of implementation in
the classroom. Research has found instructional time to be related to student achievement (Hanushek
& Wößmann, 2017), although such relationships may depend on how efficiently and effectively
instructional time is used (Mullis, Martin, & Loveless, 2016). For example, teachers who are strong
classroom managers may be more efficient, as they can focus the instructional time on teaching the
curricular content.
Homework is one way teachers can extend instruction and evaluate student learning. The amount
of homework assigned varies both within and across countries, with homework not assigned at all to

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 69
fourth grade students in some countries. TIMSS 2019 will collect data on homework assignments,
including how homework is used, through the teacher questionnaire at the fourth and eighth grades
and the student questionnaire at the eighth grade. Although there are differences across countries, most
eighth grade mathematics and science teachers assign homework, discuss the homework in class, and
provide feedback to students. Students’ reports on time spent completing homework do not show a
clear relationship with TIMSS achievement—perhaps because struggling students take a longer amount
of time to complete their homework. Homework assignments may also be redundant with classroom
instruction, not reinforcing or extending the instruction.

Instructional Practices and Strategies

Since 1995, the TIMSS teacher questionnaires have collected important information on the frequency
with which teachers implement various instructional practices and strategies. For TIMSS 2019,
mathematics-specific practices will include the frequency that students work on problems on their
own, the frequency that they explain their answers in class, and the frequency with which they are
asked to decide their own problem solving strategies. Science practices will focus on the frequency that
teachers emphasize science investigation, with items focusing on student exposure to experiments and
investigations within their science lessons.

Instructional Clarity
The TIMSS 2019 student and teacher questionnaires will include a renewed focus on instructional
quality, including updating scales measuring instructional clarity (Nilsen, Gustafsson, & Blömeke, 2016).
As described by Ferguson (2012), an important quality of an effective teacher is the ability to provide
clear instruction—explaining the content clearly and gauging student understanding of the topic. For
challenging topics, it is often necessary for the teacher to employ a variety of pedagogical techniques
and explanations to ensure student comprehension. Another way that teachers can increase clarity is
by linking new concepts to things students already know and understand (McLaughlin et al., 2005).
The TIMSS 2019 Instructional Clarity scales benefit from two previous efforts. Five of the 10 items
in each of the TIMSS 2015 Students’ Views on Engaging Teaching scales at fourth and eighth grades
measured instructional clarity. The scales showed positive associations between instructional clarity
and student achievement in many participating countries, especially at the eighth grade. A number
of countries also included a national extension in the fourth grade student questionnaire, and the
results showed higher achievement for students reporting greater instructional clarity by their teachers
(Bergem, Nilsen, & Scherer, 2016).

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 70
Supportive Classroom Climate
TIMSS 2019 also plans for the student and teacher questionnaires to contain new Supportive Classroom
Climate scales. The TIMSS 2015 national extension (Bergem et al., 2016; Wendt, Bos, Selter, Köller,
Schwippert, & Kasper, 2016) included a scale measuring supportive climate, which was based on the
work of Baumert et al. (2010) and Klieme, Pauli, & Reusser (2009). The TIMSS 2015 national extension
found a positive relationship between a supportive climate and student achievement. A supportive
environment has also been found to increase student motivation and participation (Cornelius-White,
2007; Fauth, Decristan, Rieser, Klieme, & Büttner, 2014; Marzano, Marzano, & Pickering, 2003).
Teachers can create a supportive environment by providing positive feedback, listening and
responding to students’ questions, and being empathetic to students’ needs (Reeve, 2002). Indicators of
a supportive climate include the frequency with which the teacher helps students learn and the teacher
showing interest in student learning, as well as the frequency that the teacher asks students to express
their opinions.

Use of Technology in Instruction

Educational systems throughout the world are investing resources to ensure that classrooms are well
equipped with instructional technology, and countries are also using technology more in assessment.
TIMSS 2019 will document how mathematics and science teachers use instructional technology in
the classroom. For mathematics, data will be collected on teachers’ reports of how often they have
students do mathematics activities on computers, such as solving mathematics problems or exploring
mathematics concepts. In science, data also will be collected on science specific activities such as whether
teachers use technology to conduct or simulate experiments and investigations. In addition, students
provide data on their use of technology for learning at home and in school.
With TIMSS 2019 being administered in many countries on personal computers and tablets, TIMSS
2019 also will collect data on students’ experiences taking tests on digital devices. It is expected that
some students will have had extensive experience taking both formative and summative assessments
online, and other students will have had less experience with digital assessment.

Challenges Faced by Teachers

Mathematics and science teachers face a number of challenges in fulfilling all of the obligations of their
position in the school. The TIMSS 2019 teacher questionnaires will ask about having too many students
in the class, being burdened with administrative duties, and not having enough time to prepare lessons.
Teaching can also be more difficult when students have frequent absences from school or do not have
the prerequisite foundation of content knowledge to learn the new mathematics or science content. It
can also be difficult to teach students who come to school tired or hungry.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 71
Student Attitudes Toward Learning
Improving students’ attitudes toward learning is a major curricular goal for many countries (Mullis,
Martin, Goh, & Cotter, 2016), and an abundance of research has documented the relationship between
student achievement and student attitudes. IEA has collected extensive information about student
attitudes toward mathematics and science since its initial studies in these curriculum areas.

Student Attitudes Toward Mathematics and Science

As described by Mullis, Martin, and Hooper (2017), TIMSS has been measuring student attitudes
toward mathematics and science achievement since 1995. TIMSS 2019 will continue measuring students’
attitudes through a number of scales, including Students Like Learning Mathematics, Students Value
Mathematics, and Students Confident in Mathematics, with equivalent scales in science measuring similar
constructs.
The Students Like Learning Mathematics and Students Like Learning Science scales measure a
student’s intrinsic motivation to learn the subjects. Intrinsic motivation is the “energizer of behavior”
(Deci & Ryan, 1985, p. 32). Students who are intrinsically motivated to learn mathematics or science
find the subject to be interesting and enjoyable. TIMSS data have shown a strong relationship between
these scales and student achievement.
TIMSS measures extrinsic motivation through the eighth grade Students Value Mathematics and
Students Value Science scales. Extrinsic motivation refers to the drive that comes from external rewards
like praise, career success, money, and other incentives. Research has consistently shown that intrinsic
motivation is more closely related to achievement than extrinsic motivation (Becker, McElvany, &
Kortenbruck, 2010; Vansteenkiste, Timmermans, Lens, Soenens, & Van den Broeck, 2008). Nevertheless,
TIMSS results have consistently shown a strong relationship between students valuing the subject and
their achievement.
TIMSS also measures subject-specific self-concept through the Students Confident in Mathematics
scales and Students Confident in Science scales, and the results from six previous TIMSS cycles have
shown a strong relationship between students’ academic self-concepts and their achievement. Students
tend to have distinct views of their ability in different subjects, and their self-appraisal is often based on
their past experiences and how they see themselves compared with their peers (Marsh & Craven, 2006).

Student Confidence Using Technology

One of the biggest changes in education since the inception of TIMSS has been schools’ increasing
reliance on technology. As reported in the TIMSS 2015 Encyclopedia, most TIMSS countries are working
toward integrating technology into instruction across the curriculum to help make teaching and learning
more engaging and efficient. Consistent with increased attention across the TIMSS 2019 questionnaires
on the areas of technology availability and use, TIMSS 2019 will assess students’ degree of confidence

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 72
in using digital devices. The students participating in eTIMSS 2019 will be asked additional questions
specific to the eTIMSS experience.

References
Akiba, M., LeTendre, G.K., & Scribner, J.P. (2007). Teacher quality, opportunity gap, and national achievement in 46
countries. Educational Researcher, 36(7), 369–387.

Anders, Y., Rossbach, H.G., Weinert, S., Ebert, S., Kuger, S., Lehrl, S., & von Maurice, J. (2012). Home and preschool
learning environments and their relations to the development of early numeracy skills. Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, 27(2), 231–244.

Barrows, S., Peterson, P.E., & West, M.R. (2017). What do parents think of their children’s schools? Education Next,
Spring 2017, pp. 8-17.

Baumert, J., Kunter, M., Blum, W., Brunner, M., Voss, T., Jordan, A., & Tsai, Y.-M. (2010). Teachers’ mathematical
knowledge, cognitive activation in the classroom, and student progress. American Educational Research Journal,
47(1), 133–180.

Bergem, O.K., Nilsen, T., Scherer, R. (2016). Undervisningskvalitet i matematikk. In O.K. Bergem, H. Kaarstein, & T.
Nilsen, Vi kan lykkes i realfag. Resultater og analyser fra TIMSS 2015 (pp.120–136). Retrieved from https://www.idunn.
no/vi-kan-lykkes-i-realfag#/contents

Becker, M., McElvany, N., & Kortenbruck, M. (2010). Intrinsic and extrinsic reading motivation as predictors of reading
literacy: A longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(4), 773–785.

Blank, R.K., & de las Alas, N. (2009). Effects of teacher professional development on gains in student achievement: How
meta analysis provides scientific evidence useful to education leaders. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School
Officers.

Claessens, A., & Engel, M. (2013). How important is where you start? Early mathematics knowledge and later school
success. Teachers College Record, 115, 1–29.

Clotfelter, C.T., Ladd, H.F., & Vigdor, J.L. (2010). Teacher credentials and student achievement in high school: A cross-
subject analysis with student fixed effects. The Journal of Human Resources, 45(3), 655–681.

Cohen, J., McCabe, E.M., Michelli, N.M., & Pickeral, T. (2009). School climate: Research, policy, practice, and teacher
education. Teachers College Record, 111(1), 190-213.
Coleman, J., Campbell, E., Hobson, C., McPartland, J., Mood, A., Weinfeld, F., & York, R. (1966). Equality of opportunity.
Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics, US Government Printing Office.

Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher-student relationships are effective: A meta-analysis. Review of

Educational Research, 77(1), 113–143.

Dahl, G.B., & Lochner, L. (2012). The impact of family income on child achievement: Evidence from the earned income
tax credit. American Economic Review, 102(5), 1927–1956.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). How teacher education matters. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(3), 166–173.

Davis-Kean, P.E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: The indirect role of
parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 73
Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

Duncan, G.J., Dowsett, C.J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A.C., Klebanov, P., Pagani, L.S., Feinstein, L., Engel,
M., Brooks-Gunn, J., Sexton, H., Duckworth, K., & Japel, C. (2007). School readiness and later achievement.
Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428–1446.

Duncan, G.J., & Magnuson, K. (2013). Investing in preschool programs. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(2), 109–132.

Duncan, G.J., & Sojourner, A.J. (2013). Can intensive early childhood intervention programs eliminate income-based
cognitive and achievement gap? Journal of Human Resources, 48(4), 945–968.

Fauth, B., Decristan, J., Rieser, S., Klieme, E., & Büttner, G. (2014). Student ratings of teaching quality in primary school:
Dimensions and prediction of student outcomes. Learning and Instruction, 29, 1–9.

Ferguson, R.F. (2012). Can student surveys measure teaching quality? Phi Delta Kappan, 94(3), 24–28.

García-Pérez, J. Hidalgo-Hidalgo, M., & Robles-Zurita, J.A. (2014). Does grade retention affect students’ achievement?
Some evidence from Spain. Applied Economics, 46(12), 1372–1392.

Glew, G.M., Fan, M., Katon, W., & Rivara, F.P. (2008). Bullying and school safety. The Journal of Pediatrics, 152(1),
123–128.

Glewwe, P.W., Hanushek, E.A., Humpage, S.D., & Ravina, R. (2011). School resources and educational outcomes in
developing countries: A review of the literature from 1990 to 2010. In P. Glewwe (Ed.), Education Policy in Developing
Countries (pp. 13–64). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Gottfredson, G.D., Gottfredson, D.C., Payne, A.A., & Gottfredson, N.C. (2005). School climate predictors of school
disorder: Results from a national study of delinquency prevention in schools. Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency, 42(4), 412–444.

Greenberg, E., Skidmore, D., & Rhodes, D. (2004). Climates for learning: Mathematics achievement and its relationship
to schoolwide student behavior, schoolwide parental involvement, and school morale. Paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Educational Researchers Association, San Diego, CA.

Gustafsson, J.-E., Hansen, K.Y., & Rosén, M. (2013). Effects of home background on student achievement in reading,
mathematics, and science at the fourth grade. In M.O. Martin & I.V.S. Mullis (Eds.), TIMSS and PIRLS 2011:
Relationships among reading, mathematics, and science achievement at the fourth grade—Implications for early learning
(pp. 181–287). Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.

Hanushek, E.A. (1997). Assessing the effects of school resources on student performance: An update. Educational
Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 19(2), 141–164.

Hanushek, E.A. & Wößmann, L. (2006). Does educational tracking affect performance and inequality? Differences–in–
differences evidence across countries. The Economic Journal, 116(510), C63–C76.

Hanushek, E.A., & Wößmann, L. (2017). School resources and student achievement: A review of cross-country economic
research. In M. Rosén, K.Y. Hansen, & U. Wolff (Eds.), Cognitive Abilities and Educational Outcomes (pp. 149–171).
Methodology of Educational Measurement and Assessment. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

Harris, D.N., & Sass, T.R. (2011). Teacher training, teacher quality and student achievement. Journal of Public Economics,
95(7–8), 798–812.

Hart, B., & Risley, T.R. (2003). The early catastrophe: The 30 million word gap. American Educator, 27(1), 4–9.

Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York: Routledge.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 74
Heckman, J.J., & Masterov, D.V. (2007). The productivity argument for investing in young children (No. w13016). National
Bureau of Economic Research.

Hill, H.C., Rowan, B., & Ball, D.L. (2005). Effects of teachers’ mathematical knowledge for teaching on student
achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 42(2), 371–406.

Hooper, M. (2017). Applying the pseudo-panel approach to international large-scale assessments: A methodology for
analyzing subpopulation trend data (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College).

Hoy, W.K., Tarter, C.J., & Hoy, A.W. (2006). Academic optimism of schools: A force for student achievement. American
Educational Research Journal, 43(3), 425–446.

Joyce, H.D., & Early, T.J. (2014). The impact of school connectedness and teacher support on depressive symptoms in
adolescents: A multilevel analysis. Children and Youth Services Review, 39, 101–107.

Klieme, E., Pauli, C., & Reusser, K. (2009). The Pythagoras Study— Investigating effects of teaching and learning in
Swiss and German mathematics classrooms. In T. Janik & T. Seidel (Eds.), The Power of Video Studies in Investigating
Teaching and Learning in the Classroom (pp. 137–160). Münster: Waxmann.

Konishi, C., Hymel, S., Zumbo, B. D., & Li, Z. (2010). Do school bullying and student-teacher relationships matter for
academic achievement? A multilevel analysis. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 25(1), 19–39.

Lee, J.-W., & Barro, R.J. (2001). Schooling quality in a cross-section of countries. Economica, New Series, 68(272), 465–
488.

Lee, V.E., & Zuze, T.L. (2011). School resources and academic performance in Sub-Saharan Africa. Comparative
Education Review, 55(3), 369–397.

Leigh, A.K. (2010). Estimating teacher effectiveness from two-year changes in students’ test scores. Economics of
Education Review, 29(3), 480–488.

Marks, G.N. (2005). Cross-national differences and accounting for social class inequalities in education. International
Sociology, 20(4), 483–505.

Marsh, H.W., & Craven, R.G. (2006). Reciprocal effects of self-concept and performance from a multidimensional
perspective: Beyond seductive pleasure and unidimensional perspectives. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(2),
133–163.

Martin, M.O., Foy, P., Mullis, I.V.S., & O’Dwyer, L.M. (2013). Effective schools in reading, mathematics, and science
at the fourth grade. In M.O. Martin & I.V.S. Mullis (Eds.), TIMSS and PIRLS 2011: Relationships among reading,
mathematics, and science achievement at the fourth grade—Implications for early learning. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS
& PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.

Martin, M.O., Mullis, I.V.S., & Foy, P. (2011). Age distribution and reading achievement configurations among fourth-
grade students in PIRLS 2006. IERI Monograph Series: Issues and Methodologies in Large-scale Assessments, 4, 9–33.

Marzano, R.J., Marzano, J.S., & Pickering, D.J. (2003). Classroom management that works: Research-based strategies for
every teacher. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.

McGuigan, L., & Hoy, W.K. (2006). Principal leadership: Creating a culture of academic optimism to improve
achievement for all students. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 5(3), 203–229.

McLaughlin, M., Mc.Grath, D.J., Burian-Fitzgerald, M.A., Lanahan, L., Scotchmer, M., Enyeart, C., & Salganik, L. (2005,
April). Student content engagement as a construct for the measurement of effective classroom instruction and teacher
knowledge. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Researchers Association, Montreal,
Canada.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 75
McLellan, R., & Steward, S. (2015). Measuring children and young people’s wellbeing in the school context. Cambridge
Journal of Education, 45(3), 307–332.

McMahon, S.D., Wernsman, J., & Rose, D.S. (2009). The relation of classroom environment and school belonging to
academic self-efficacy among urban fourth- and fifth-grade students. The Elementary School Journal, 109(3), 267–281.

Melhuish, E.C., Phan, M.B., Sylva, K., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggert, B. (2008). Effects of the home
learning environment and preschool center experience upon literacy and numeracy development in early primary
school. Journal of Social Issues, 64(1), 95–114.

Milam, A.J., Furr-Holden, C.D.M., & Leaf, P.J. (2010). Perceived school and neighborhood safety, neighborhood violence
and academic achievement in urban school children. The Urban Review, 42(5), 458–467.

Mishna, F., Cook, C., Gadalla, T., Daciuk, J., & Solomon, S. (2010). Cyber bullying behaviors among middle and high
school students. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 80(3), 363–374.

Mullis, I.V.S., Martin, M.O., & Foy, P. (2013). The impact of reading ability on TIMSS mathematics and science
achievement at the fourth grade: An analysis by item reading demands. In M.O. Martin & I.V.S. Mullis (Eds.), TIMSS
and PIRLS 2011: Relationships among reading, mathematics, and science achievement at the fourth grade—Implications
for early learning (pp. 67–108). Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College.

Mullis, I.V.S., Martin, M.O., Goh, S., & Cotter, K. (Eds.). (2016). TIMSS 2015 encyclopedia: Education policy and
curriculum in mathematics and science. Retrieved from Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center
website: http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2015/encyclopedia/

Mullis, I.V.S., Martin, M.O., & Hooper, M. (2017). Measuring changing educational contexts in a changing world:
Evolution of the TIMSS and PIRLS questionnaires. In M. Rosén, K.Y. Hansen, & U. Wolff (Eds.), Cognitive Abilities
and Educational Outcomes (pp. 207–222). Methodology of Educational Measurement and Assessment. Switzerland:
Springer International Publishing.

Mullis, I.V.S., Martin, M.O., & Loveless, T. (2016). 20 years of TIMSS: International trends in mathematics and science
achievement, curriculum, and instruction. Chestnut Hill, MA: TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston
College.

Nilsen, T., Gustafsson, J.-E., & Blömeke, S. (2016). Conceptual framework and methodology of this report. In T. Nilsen
& J.-E. Gustafsson (Eds.), Teacher quality, instructional quality, student outcomes (pp. 1–19). Amsterdam, The
Netherlands: IEA.

Parker, P.D., Jerrim, J., Schoon, I., & Marsh, H.W. (2016). A multination study of socioeconomic inequality in
expectations for progression to higher education: The role of between-school tracking and ability stratification.
American Educational Research Journal, 53(1), 6–32.

Princiotta, D., Flanagan, K.D., & Hausken, E.G. (2006). Fifth grade: Findings from the fifth-grade follow-up of the
early childhood longitudinal study, kindergarten class of 1998–99 (ECLSK). Washington, DC: National Center for
Educational Statistics.

Punter, A., Glas, C.A., & Meelissen, M.R.M. (2016). Psychometric framework for modeling parental involvement and
reading literacy. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IEA.

Reeve, J. (2002). Self-determination theory applied to educational settings. In E.L. Deci & R.M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of
self-determination research (pp. 183–204). Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press.

Renshaw, T.L., Long, A.C.J., & Cook, C.R. (2015). Assessing Adolescents’ Positive Psychological Functioning at School:
Development and Validation of the Student Subjective Wellbeing Questionnaire. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(4),
534–552.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 76
Rothon, C., Head, J., Klineberg, E., & Stansfeld, S. (2011). Can social support protect bullied adolescents from adverse
outcomes? A prospective study on the effects of bullying on the educational achievement and mental health of
adolescents at secondary schools in East London. Journal of Adolescence, 3(3), 579–588.

Rumberger, R.W., & Palardy, G.J. (2005). Does segregation still matter? The impact of student composition on academic
achievement in high school. The Teachers College Record, 107(9), 1999–2045.

Rutkowski, L., Rutkowski, D., & Engel, L. (2013). Sharp contrasts at the boundaries: School violence and educational
outcomes internationally. Comparative Education Review, 57(2), 232–259.

Sacerdote, B. (2011). Peer effects in education: How might they work, how big are they and how much do we know thus
far? In E.A. Hanushek, S.J. Machin, & L. Wößmann, Handbook of the economics of education (pp. 681–704). San
Diego, CA: Elsevier.

Sarama, J., & Clements, D.H. (2009). Building blocks and cognitive building blocks: Playing to know the world
mathematically. American Journal of Play, 1(3), 313–337.

Schütz, G., Ursprung, H.W., & Wößmann, L. (2008). Education policy and equality of opportunity. Kyklos, 61(2), 279–
308.

Sénéchal, M., & LeFevre, J. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children’s reading skill: A five-year
longitudinal study. Child Development, 73(2), 445–460.

Sirin, S.R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of
Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453.

Skwarchuk, S.-L., Sowinski, C., & LeFevre, J.-A. (2014). Formal and informal home learning activities in relation to
children’s early numeracy and literacy skills: The development of a home numeracy model. Journal of Experimental
Child Psychology, 121, 63–84.

Stacer, M.J., & Perrucci, R. (2013). Parental involvement with children at school, home, and community. Journal of Family
and Economic Issues, 34(3), 340–354.

Stanco, G. (2012). Using TIMSS 2007 data to examine STEM school effectiveness in an international context (Doctoral
dissertation, Boston College).

Tokunaga, R.S. (2010). Following you home from school: A critical review and synthesis of research on cyberbullying
victimization. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(3), 277–287.

Van de Werfhorst, H.G., & Mijs, J.J.B. (2010). Achievement inequality and the institutional structures of educational
systems: A comparative perspective. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 407–428.

Vansteenkiste, M., Timmermans, T., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Van den Broeck, A. (2008). Does extrinsic goal framing
enhance extrinsic goal-oriented individuals’ learning and performance? An experimental test of the match
perspective versus self-determination theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(2), 387–397.

Wendt, H., Bos, W., Selter, C., Köller, O., Schwippert, K., & Kasper, D. (Eds.). (2016). Mathematische und
naturwissenschaftliche Kompetenzen von Grundschulkindern in Deutschland im internationalen Vergleich. Muenster,
Germany: Waxmann.

Willms, J.D. (2006). Learning divides: Ten policy questions about the performance and equity of schools and schooling
systems. Montreal, Canada: UNESCO Institute for Statistics.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 77
Wu, J.H., Hoy, W.K., & Tarter, C.J. (2013). Enabling school structure, collective responsibility, and a culture of academic
optimism: Toward a robust model of school performance in Taiwan. Journal of Educational Administration, 51(2),
176–193.

Yoon, K.S., Duncan, T., Lee, S.W.-Y., Scarloss, B., & Shapley, K.L. (2007). Reviewing the evidence on how teacher
professional development affects student achievement (Institute of Education Sciences Report No. REL 2007–No.033).
Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
TIMSS 2019 CONTEXT QUESTIONNAIRE FRAMEWORK 78
 timss.bc.edu

TIMSS & PIRLS

International Study Center
Lynch School of Education
© IEA, 2017