Lesson 2 – Types , Principles and Ethics of Communication

Think – Pair – Share

Considering the complex process of communication, discuss with a classmate the
relationship between language and culture. Then share with the class the insights that your
group has raised.

Input
What is Communication?

Depending on what is being considered communication, as a term takes on

different contexts resulting in people having different views on communication types.
Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages through verbal or nonverbal
means, including speech, or oral communication; writing and graphical representations (such as
infographics, maps, and charts); and signs, signals, and behavior. More simply, communication is said to
be "the creation and exchange of meaning." 
Context is the circumstance or environment in which communication takes. Such circumstances
may include the physical or actual setting the value positions of a speaker/listener, and the relevance or
appropriateness of a message conveyed. It focuses on certain communication processes and even
groupings of people that constitute a communication situation.
Different contexts can impact one’s communication. Each communication type is governed by a
particular circumstances. Does it is essential to pay attention to the interplay of factors surrounding the
context of communication which may be physical, cultural, social and psychological in nature.
Communication may then be classified according to mode, context, purpose and style.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO MODE

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication is perhaps the most obvious and understood mode of communication, and it is
certainly a powerful tool in your communication toolbox. Put simply, verbal communication is the
sharing of information between two individuals using words.

Spoken versus Written Communication

While we typically focus on speech while talking about verbal communication, it’s important to
remember that writing is also a form of verbal communication. After all, writing uses words too!

Imagine for a moment that you’re a college student who is struggling with material in a class. Rather
than simply giving up, you decide that you’re going to ask your instructor for the guidance you need to
make it through the end of the semester. Now, you have a few choices for using verbal communication to
do this. You might choose to call your instructor, if they’ve provided contact information, or talk to them
in person after class or during office hours. You may take a different approach and send them an email.
You can probably identify your own list of pros and cons for each of these approaches. But really, what’s
the difference between writing and talking in these situations? Let’s look at four of the major differences
between the two:

1. Formal versus Informal: We generally use spoken communication informally while we use

written communication formally.
2. Synchronous versus Asynchronous: Synchronous communication is communication that takes
place in real time, such as a conversation with a friend. In contrast, asynchronous communication
is communication that is not immediate and occurs over longer periods of time, such as letters,
email, or even text messages.
3. Recorded versus Unrecorded: Written communication is generally archived and recorded for
later retrieval while spoken communication is generally not recorded.

Benefits of Spoken Communication

Spoken communication can be a conversation, a meeting, or even a speech. Spoken

communication is powerful in that it allows for input from every part of the social communication model.
You encode your thoughts into the spoken word and look to your audience to decode and take the
message in. You can ask for feedback directly to confirm understanding of your message.

In a world where we do most of our talking by email and text, spoken communication is a breath
of fresh air. Leverage the power of spoken communication to create relationships—you can establish a
rapport and a sense of trust with your audience when you speak with them. Spoken communication allows
you to bond on a more emotional level with your listeners.

Spoken communication also makes it easier to ensure understanding by addressing objections and
clearing up misunderstandings: you can adjust your message as you communicate it, based on the
feedback you’re getting from your audience. Spoken communication allows you to walk away from a
conversation with a higher degree of certainty that your message was received.

Nonverbal Communication

We’ve already employed a little bit of nonverbal communication with the active listening skills we’ve
previously discussed: nodding, facial expressions, leaning toward the speaker to show interest—all of
those are forms of nonverbal communication. Body language can reinforce your spoken message or it can
contradict it entirely.

There’s a myth that says that when you speak, only 35 percent of your communication is verbal and 65
percent of it is nonverbal. That’s not entirely true (or else foreign languages would be much easier to
understand!). But it’s absolutely true that nonverbal communication can make or break your message.
Here are some types of nonverbal communication and the effects they can have on the success of your
communication:

 Facial expressions: Your teenage cousin we referred to at the beginning of this section might
have told you he was happy, but his apathetic facial expression may have communicated different
information. Facial expressions—happy, sad, angry—help you convey your message. Be aware of
your facial expression when you talk and particularly when you listen, which is when it’s easy to
forget.
  Gestures: When you speak, a gesture can make your message stronger. Pointing out something
you want your listener to look at more closely is an example of nonverbal communication that
makes your message understood. Motioning warmly toward a coworker who deserves special
recognition, making a fist to show frustration or anger, such gestures help further engage your
audience when you speak.
 Proximity: How close you are to your audience when you speak sends a nonverbal message. If
your size is imposing and you leave a very small distance between you and your listener, it’s likely
your nonverbal communication will be a bit threatening. On the other hand, giving someone too
much space is an awkward nonverbal communication that might confuse your listener.
 Touch: Shaking an audience member’s hand, putting your hand on his shoulder: these are
nonverbal cues that can affect the success of your message. Touch communicates affection, but it
also communicates power. In fact, when women touch a listener, it’s often assumed that they’re
being affectionate or conveying empathy, but when a man touches a listener, it can be taken as a
sign of communicating power or even dominance.
 Eye contact: Making and maintaining eye contact with an audience when you’re verbally
communicating or listening communicates to the other party that you’re interested and engaged in
the conversation. Good eye contact often conveys the trait of honesty to the other party.
 Appearance: Your clothing, hair, and jewelry are also a part of nonverbal communication. If you
put a dachshund pin on your lapel each morning (because you have a pet dachshund), that says
something about you as a person. Similarly, the quality and condition of your clothing, how it fits,
if it’s appropriate for the season—all of these things speak nonverbally about you as a
communicator.

Nonverbal communication reveals a lot about you as a communicator and how you relate to other people.
It pays to be aware of the elements of your nonverbal communication so you can maximize the impact of
your message.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO CONTEXT

Is a quiet dinner conversation with someone you care about the same experience as a discussion in class
or giving a speech? Is sending a text message to a friend the same experience as writing a professional
project proposal or a purchase order? Each context has an influence on the communication process.
Contexts can overlap, creating an even more dynamic process. You have been communicating in many of
these contexts across your lifetime, and you’ll be able to apply what you’ve learned through experience in
each context to business communication.

Intrapersonal Communication

Have you ever listened to a speech or lecture and gotten caught up in your thoughts so that, while the
speaker continued, you were no longer listening? During a phone conversation, have you ever been
thinking about what you are going to say, or what question you might ask, instead of listening to the other
person? Finally, have you ever told yourself how you did after you wrote a document or gave a
presentation? As you “talk with yourself” you are engaged in intrapersonal communication.

The Latin prefix intra- means within or inside. Intrapersonal communication involves one person;
it is often called “self-talk.” (Wood, 1997) Donna Vocate’s book on intrapersonal communication
explains how, as we use language to reflect on our own experiences, we talk ourselves through situations.
For example, the voice within you that tells you, “Keep on Going! I can DO IT!” when you are putting
your all into completing a five-mile race; or that says, “This report I’ve written is pretty good.” Your
intrapersonal communication can be positive or negative, and directly influences how you perceive and
react to situations and communication with others.

What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture, native
language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas said, “Every process of
reaching understanding takes place against the background of a culturally ingrained preunderstanding.”
(Habermas, 1984)

For example, you may have certain expectations of time and punctuality. You weren’t born with
them, so where did you learn them? From those around you as you grew up. What was normal for them
became normal for you, but not everyone’s idea of normal is the same.

When your supervisor invites you to a meeting and says it will start at 7 p.m., does that mean
7:00 sharp, 7-ish, or even 7:30? In the business context, when a meeting is supposed to start at 9 a.m.,

is it promptly a 9 a.m.? Variations in time expectations depend on regional and national culture as
well as individual corporate cultures. In some companies, everyone may be expected to arrive ten to
fifteen minutes before the announced start time to take their seats and be ready to commence business at
9:00 sharp. In other companies, “meeting and greeting” from about 9 to 9:05 or even 9:10 is the norm.
When you are unfamiliar with the expectations for a business event, it is always wise to err on the side of
being punctual, regardless of what your internal assumptions about time and punctuality may be.

Interpersonal Communication

The second major context within the field of communication is interpersonal

communication. Interpersonal communication normally involves two people, and can range from intimate
and very personal to formal and impersonal. You may carry on a conversation with a loved one, sharing a
serious concern. Later, at work, you may have a brief conversation about plans for the weekend with the
security guard on your way home. What’s the difference? Both scenarios involve interpersonal
communication, but are different in levels of intimacy. The first example implies a trusting relationship
established over time between two caring individuals. The second example level implies some previous
familiarity, and is really more about acknowledging each other than any actual exchange of information,
much like saying hello or goodbye.

EXTENDED COMMUNICATION

Extended communication involves the use of electronic media. Unlike before when it only cold
for the use of television and radio nowadays description of extended communication may be expanded as
to include tele, audio or phone conferencing; video conferencing; Skype calls and other technological
means. Since extended communication is public in nature, speakers are expected to be prepared when
they speak making their language more formal.

With the use of electronic media messages or transmitted quickly. For instance with the use of the
Internet recorded videos may be transmitted in seconds or minutes and maybe viewed by a greater
number of people. With extended communication your own thinking behavior and attitude may be
influenced by other people and you may be persuaded to take the views you hear. It is important then that
you weigh what you hear and assess them against those beliefs that you hold onto so you do not get easily
swayed by other people’s convictions.

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
 Like defining communication study, many definitions of organizational
communication exist. Deetz argues that one way to enlighten our understanding of
organizational communication is to compare different approaches. However, for the
purpose of this text, we want to define organizational communication so you have a
frame of reference for understanding this chapter. Our definition is not definitive, but
creates a starting point for understanding this specialization of communication study.

We define organizational communication’ as the sending and receiving of

messages among interrelated individuals within a particular environment or setting to
achieve individual and common goals. Organizational communication is highly
contextual and culturally dependent. Individuals in organizations transmit messages
through face-to face, written, and mediated channels.

Organizational communication helps us to 1) accomplish tasks relating to specific

roles and responsibilities of sales, services, and production; 2) acclimate to changes
through individual and organizational creativity and adaptation; 3) complete tasks
through the maintenance of policy, procedures, or regulations that support daily and
continuous operations; 4) develop relationships where “human messages are directed
at people within the organization-their attitudes, morale, satisfaction, and fulfillment”
(Goldhaber 20); and 5) coordinate, plan, and control the operations of the organization
through management (Katz & Kahn; Redding; Thayer). Organizational communication is
how organizations represent, present, and constitute their organizational climate and
culture—the attitudes, values and goals that characterize the organization and its
members.

Organizational communication largely focuses on building relationships and

interacting with with internal organizational members and interested external publics. As
Mark Koschmann explains in his animated YouTube video, we have two ways of looking
at organizational communication. The conventional approach focuses on
communication within organizations. The second approach is communication as
organization — meaning organizations are a result of the communication of those within
them. Communication is not just about transmitting messages between senders and
receivers. Communication literally constitutes, or makes up, our social world. Much of
our communication involves sending and receiving relatively unproblematic messages
and acting on that information. Other times things are a bit more complex, such as when
you need to resolve conflict with a close friend or family member. There is much more
going on in these situations then merely exchanging information. You are actually
engaging in a complex process of meaning and negotiating rules created by the people
involved.

For organizations to be successful, they must have competent communicators.

Organizational communication study shows that organizations rely on effective
communication and efficient communication skills from their members. A number of
surveys (Davis & Miller; Holter & Kopka; Perrigo & Gaut) identify effective oral and
written communication as the most sought after skills by those who run organizations.
The U.S. Department of Labor reported communication competency as the most vital
skill necessary for the 21st century workforce to achieve organizational success
(Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills). The Public Forum Institute
maintained that employees need to be skilled in public presentation, listening, and
interpersonal communication to flourish in an organization.

Organizations seek people who can follow and give instructions, accurately
listen, provide useful feedback, get along with coworkers and customers, network,
provide serviceable information, work well in teams, and creatively and critically solve
problems and present ideas in an understandable manner. Developing organizational
communication awareness and effectiveness is more than just having know-how or
knowledge. Efficient organizational communication involves knowing how to create and
exchange information, work with diverse groups or individuals, communicate in
complicated and changing circumstances, as well as having the aptitude or motivation
to communicate in appropriate manners.

How the Field of Organizational Communication Began

As you now know, communication study is deeply entrenched in the oral

rhetorical traditions of ancient Rome and Greece. Similar to the many of the early
concepts that shaped the discipline, some of the founding principles of organizational
communication originated in the East. As early as the fourth century, Chinese scholars
concentrated on the “problems of communicating within the vast government
bureaucracy as well as between the government and the people” (Murphy, Hildebrandt
& Thomas 4). Ancient eastern scholars focused on information flow, message fidelity,
and quality of information within their governmental bureaucracy (Krone, Garrett &
Chen; Paraboteeah). These still remain areas of focus for organizational communication
that you will learn in your classes today.

Organizational Communication Today

As communication evolves, research continues to develop, and organizational

communication continues to redefine itself. In the early stages, this area focused on
leaders giving public presentations. More recently emphasis has focused on all levels of
interaction in organizations. Because interpersonal relationships are a large part of
organizational communication, a great deal of research focuses on how interpersonal
relationships are conducted within the framework of organizational hierarchies.

Modern organizational communication research has been summarized into eight

major traditions: 1) Communication channels, 2) Communication climate, 3) Network
analysis, 4) Superior-subordinate communication, 5) the information-processing
perspective, 6) the rhetorical perspective, 7) the cultural perspective, and 8) the political
perspective (Putnam and Cheney; Kim) Since the 1980s, this specialization has
expanded to include work on organizational culture, power and conflict management,
and organizational rhetoric. If you were to take an organizational communication course
at your campus, much of the time would be spent focusing on developing your skills in
organizational socialization, interviewing, giving individual and group presentations,
creating positive work relationships, performance evaluation, conflict resolution, stress
management, decision making, and communicating with external publics.
INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Cultures and Communication

Buongiorno. Salam. Nín hao. Hujambo. Howdy.

There are so many ways just to say hello! No matter where you are in the world, communication
is important. But communicating across cultures can be pretty hard. And I don't just mean that there's a
language barrier, although that can be an issue. No, I mean that cultures actually have some very different
ways of communicating. Some cultures are informal, some cultures use a whole series of ritual greetings
before having a conversation, and some cultures consider it rude to show up to a meeting on time. 
But what do all these cultures have in common? Well, for one, you can offend each of them if you don't
understand their communication practices. And we want to avoid that. So what do we do? Well, to put it
simply, we learn to communicate! 
Intercultural Communication

So, we need to learn how to communicate all over again, just like when we were children.
And just like when we were children, this requires learning language as well as learning
behavioral norms for good communication. However, this will be a bit different since we're
adults learning how to communicate in someone else's culture, not our own. 
Intercultural communication is the verbal and nonverbal interaction between people
from different cultural backgrounds. Basically, 'inter-' is a prefix that means 'between' and
cultural means… well, from a culture, so intercultural communication is the communication
between cultures. Sometimes, this is used to describe a single person trying to interact in a
foreign environment but more often, it is a two-way street, where people from both cultures are
trying to improve their communication. 
Now, if you want to learn about intercultural communication, it's important to understand
what this is. But it's also important to understand what it isn't. Intercultural communication is
targeted at allowing for positive and productive interaction. You are not joining this culture, you
are not becoming a member of another society, you are not abandoning your own culture. That
would be assimilation and that's not what we're after. 

Intercultural communication is also not simply a language proficiency. Yes, communication

requires the ability to understand language, but just think about how much of your communication with
even your own friends is nonverbal: our body language, our attitudes, the rituals from hand-shaking to the
stink eye. Some researchers estimate that up to 93% of all human communication is nonverbal, although
according to recent studies, it's actually closer to 60%. 

Still, that means that more than half of communication is never spoken. So, intercultural
communication is going to take a lot more than just learning a language.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE AND STYLE

Finally communication maybe classified according to purpose and style. Earlier formal
and informal communication have been discussed in relation to organization and communication.
Similarly the types of communication and relationship purpose and style our formal and
informal. However rather than focusing on the transmission of message and message below the
focus here is on the communication setting and the mode of delivery. Formal communication
employees formal language delivered orally or in written form. Lectures, public talks/speeches,
research and research proposals, reports and business letters, among others are all considered
formal situations and writings. Note that while lectures and speeches are delivered already the
texts have been thought out carefully and written well before they are delivered. To inform, to
entertain and to persuade or the main objectives of this type of communication.

On the other hand, informal communication certainly does not employ language. It
involves personal and ordinary conversation with friends family members or acquaintances about
anything under the sun. The mode maybe oral as in face-to-face ordinary or every day talks and
phone calls or written as in the case of emails personal notes letters or text messages. The
purpose is simply to socialize and enhance relationships.

Comprehension Questions ( Please answer in advance using a pen and a paper )

Check your understanding of the input by answering the following questions:

1. How do you differentiate the types of communication in relation to communication

mode?
2. How can visual communication enhance the message conveyed by a speaker? Cite a
particular situation when it is best to employ visual communication.
3. What are the types of communication in relation to context? How do they differ from one
another?
4. How can you listen to speakers opinions through electronic media without being easily
swayed into excepting their opinions?
5. Of the four approaches in employed in formal organization structure which do you think
is the best? Site situations which will call for the use of each approach. Give one
advantage and disadvantage of each.
6. Would you know any strategy or method by which you can reduce the complexity of
understanding another culture? Do you think it will work with your current set of four
and classmates or friends?
7. How do you differentiate formal communication from informal communication in
relation to purpose and style? Provide situations to illustrate the differences.