Database Systems: Lab Manual

DATABASE SYSTEMS
LAB MANUAL
2008 – 2009
DEPARTMENT OF IT
VASAVI COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING
IBRAHIMBAGH, HYDERABD-500 031.
www.vce.ac.in
0
Overview of SQL DDL, DML and DCL Commands.
DDL is Data Definition Language statements. Some examples:

CREATE - to create objects in the database
ALTER - alters the structure of the database
DROP - delete objects from the database
TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the
records ar
removed
COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database
REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT command
DML is Data Manipulation Language statements. Some examples:
SELECT - retrieve data from the a database
INSERT - insert data into a table
UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the records remain
CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
EXPLAIN PLAN - explain access path to data
LOCK TABLE - control concurrency
DCL is Data Control Language statements. Some examples:
COMMIT - save work done
SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back
ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last COMMIT
SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like what rollback segment to use
1
Basic SQL DDL Commands.
To practice basic SQL DDL Commands such as CREATE, DROP, etc.
1. SQL - CREATE TABLE

Syntax: CREATE TABLE tablename (column_name data_ type constraints, …)
Example:
INPUT:
SQL> CREATE TABLE Emp ( EmpNo short CONSTRAINT PKey PRIMARY KEY,
EName VarChar(15), Job Char(10) CONSTRAINT Unik1 UNIQUE,
Mgr short CONSTRAINT FKey1 REFERENCES EMP (EmpNo),
Hiredate Date, DeptNo short CONSTRAINT FKey2 REFERENCES DEPT(DeptNo));
RESULT: Table created.
SQL>Create table prog20 (pname varchar2(20) not null), doj date not null,dob date not null,
sex varchar(1) not null, prof1 varchar(20),prof2 varchar(20),salary number(7,2) not null);
RESULT:
Table created.
SQL>desc prog20;
Name Null? Type
--------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
PNAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20)
DOJ NOT NULL DATE
DOB NOT NULL DATE
SEX NOT NULL VARCHAR2(1)
PROF1 VARCHAR2(20)
PROF2 VARCHAR2(20)
SALARY NOT NULL NUMBER(7,2)
2
2. SQL - ALTER TABLE
INPUT:
SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP ADD CONSTRAINT Pkey1 PRIMARY KEY (EmpNo);
RESULT: Table Altered.
Similarly, ALTER TABLE EMP DROP CONSTRAINT Pkey1;
3. SQL - DROP TABLE

– Deletes table structure – Cannot be recovered – Use with caution
INPUT:
SQL> DROP TABLE EMP; Here EMP is table name
RESULT: Table Dropped.
4. TRUNCATE TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLE NAME>;
Basic SQL DML Commands.

To practice basic SQL DML Commands such as INSERT, DELETE, etc.
1. SQL - INSERT INTO

Syntax: INSERT INTO tablename VALUES (value list)
 Single-row insert
INSERT INTO S VALUES(‘S3’,’SUP3’,’BLORE’,10)
 Inserting one row, many columns at a time
INSERT INTO S (SNO, SNAME) VALUES (‘S1’, ‘Smith’);S1’ Smith’
 Inserting many rows, all/some columns at a time.
INSERT INTO NEW_SUPPLIER (SNO, SNAME)
SELECT SNO, SNAME FROM S
WHERE CITY IN (‘BLORE’,’MADRAS’)
3
Other Examples:
INPUT:
SQL>Insert into prog values (‘kkk’,’05-may-56’);
RESULT: 1 row created.
INPUT:
SQL>Insert into prog20 values(‘Hema’,’25-sept-01’28-jan-85’,’f’,’c’,’c++’,’25000’);
RESULT: 1 row created.
INPUT:
SQL>Insert into prog values(‘&pname’,’&doj’);
SQL> Insert into prog values('&pname','&doj');
Enter value for pname: ravi
Enter value for doj: 15-june-81
RESULT:
old 1: Insert into prog values('&pname','&doj')
new 1: Insert into prog values('ravi','15-june-81')
1 row created.
2. SQL - UPDATE
Syntax: UPDATE tablename SET column_name =value [ WHERE condition]
Examples:
UPDATE S SET CITY = ‘KANPUR’ WHERE SNO=‘S1’
UPDATE EMP SET SAL = 1.10 * SAL
SQL> update emp set sal=20000 where empno=7369;
1 row updated.
4
3. SQL - DELETE FROM
Syntax: DELETE FROM tablename WHERE condition
Examples:
DELETE FROM SP WHERE PNO= ‘P1’
DELETE FROM SP
INPUT:
SQL>Delete from emp where empno=7369;
RESULT: 1 row deleted.
Basic SQL DCL Commands.

To practice basic SQL DCL Commands such as COMMIT, ROLLBACK etc.
1. COMMIT
Save changes (transactional).
Syntax:
COMMIT [WORK] [COMMENT 'comment_text']

COMMIT [WORK] [FORCE 'force_text' [,int] ]
FORCE - will manually commit an in-doubt distributed transaction

force_text - transaction identifier (see the DBA_2PC_PENDING view)
int - sets a specific SCN.
If a network or machine failure prevents a distributed transaction from committing
properly, Oracle will store any commit comment in the data dictionary along with the
transaction ID.
INPUT:
SQL>commit;
RESULT: Commit complete.
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2. ROLLBACK
Undo work done (transactional).
Syntax:
ROLLBACK [WORK] [TO [SAVEPOINT]'savepoint_text_identifier'];
ROLLBACK [WORK] [FORCE 'force_text'];
FORCE - will manually rollback an in-doubt distributed transaction
INPUT:
SQL>rollback;
RESULT:Rollback complete.
3. SAVEPOINT
Save changes to a point (transactional).
Syntax:
SAVEPOINT text_identifier
Example:
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 95000
WHERE last_name = 'Smith';
SAVEPOINT justsmith;
UPDATE employees
SET salary = 1000000;
SAVEPOINT everyone;
SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees;
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT justsmith;
COMMIT;
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Writing and Practice of Simple Queries.
To write simple queries and practice them.
1. Get the description of EMP table.
SQL>desc emp;
RESULT:
Name Null? Type
-------------------------------- ----------------------- -------------------------
EMPNO NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
JOB VARCHAR2(9)
MGR NUMBER(4)
HIREDATE DATE
SAL NUMBER(7,2)
COMM NUMBER(7,2)
DEPTNO NUMBER(3)
AGE NUMBER(3)
ESAL NUMBER(10)
2. Get the description DEPT table.
SQL>desc dept;
RESULT:
Name Null? Type
--------------------------------- --------------------- ---------------------------
DEPTNO NOT NULL NUMBER(2)
DNAME VARCHAR2(14)
LOC VARCHAR2(13)
3.List all employee details.
SQL>select * from emp;
RESULT:
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO AGE ESAL
-------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -----------------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 800 0 20 25 0
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 1600 300 30 25 0
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 1250 500 30 25 0
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 2975 500 20 25 0
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 2850 1400 30 25 0
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4.List all employee names and their salaries, whose salary lies between
1500/- and 3500/- both inclusive.
INPUT
SQL>select ename from emp where sal between 1500 and 3500;
RESULT
ENAME
----------
ALLEN
JONES
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
TURNER
FORD
russel
greg
9 rows selected.
5. List all employee names and their and their manager whose manager is
7902 or 7566 0r 7789.
INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where mgr in(7602,7566,7789);
RESULT
ENAME
-------
SCOTT
FORD
6. List all employees which starts with either J or T.

INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where ename like ‘J%’ or ename like ‘T%’;
RESULT:
ENAME
---------
JONES
TURNER
JAMES
8
7. List all employee names and jobs, whose job title includes M or P.
INPUT SQL>select ename,job from emp where job like ‘M%’ or job like ‘P%’;
RESULT:
ENAME JOB
---------- ---------
JONES MANAGER
BLAKE MANAGER
CLARK MANAGER
KING PRESIDENT
8. List all jobs available in employee table.

INPUT SQL>select distinct job from emp;
RESULT:
JOB
---------
ANALYST
CLERK
MANAGER
PRESIDENT
SALESMAN
assistant
clerk
7 rows selected.
9. List all employees who belongs to the department 10 or 20.

INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where deptno in (10,20);
RESULT:
ENAME
----------
SMITH
JONES
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
ADAMS
FORD
MILLER
8 rows selected.
9
10. List all employee names , salary and 15% rise in salary.
INPUT SQL>select ename , sal , sal+0.15* sal from emp;
RESULT:
ENAME SAL SAL+0.15*SAL
---------- ---------- ------------
SMITH 800 920
ALLEN 1600 1840
WARD 1250 1437.5
JONES 2975 3421.25
MARTIN 1250 1437.5
BLAKE 2850 3277.5
CLARK 2450 2817.5
7 rows selected.
11. List minimum , maximum , average salaries of employee.

INPUT SQL>select min(sal),max(sal),avg(sal) from emp;
RESULT:
MIN(SAL) MAX(SAL) AVG(SAL)

--------- ---------- ----------
3 5000 1936.94118
12. Find how many job titles are available in employee table.
INPUT SQL>select count (distinct job) from emp;
RESULT:
COUNT(DISTINCTJOB)
------------------
7
13. What is the difference between maximum and minimum salaries of

employees in the organization?
INPUT SQL>select max(sal)-min(sal) from emp;
RESULT:
MAX(SAL)-MIN(SAL)
-----------------
4997
10
14. Display all employee names and salary whose salary is greater than
minimum salary of the company and job title starts with ‘M’.
INPUT SQL>select ename,sal from emp where job like ‘M%’ and sal > (select min (sal)
from emp);
RESULT
ENAME SAL
---------- ----------
JONES 2975
BLAKE 2850
CLARK 2450
15. Find how much amount the company is spending towards salaries.
INPUT SQL>select sum (sal) from emp;
RESULT
SUM(SAL)
---------
32928
16. Display name of the dept. with deptno 20.
INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where deptno = 20;
RESULT
ENAME
----------
SMITH
JONES
SCOTT
ADAMS
17. List ename whose commission is NULL.
INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where comm is null;
ENAME
RESULT ----------
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
6 rows selected.
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18. Find no.of dept in employee table.
INPUT SQL>select count (distinct ename) from emp;
RESULT
COUNT(DISTINCTENAME
--------------------
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19. List ename whose manager is not NULL.
INPUT SQL>select ename from emp where mgr is not null;
RESULT
ENAME
----------
SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
5 rows selected.
Writing Queries using GROUP BY and other clauses.
To write queries using clauses such as GROUP BY, ORDER BY, etc. and retrieving
information by joining tables.
Source tables: emp, dept, programmer, software, study.

Order by : The order by clause is used to display the results in sorted order.
Group by : The attribute or attributes given in the clauses are used to form groups. Tuples
with the same value on all attributes in the group by clause are placed in one group.
Having: SQL applies predicates (conditions) in the having clause after groups have been
formed, so aggregate function be used.
1. Display total salary spent for each job category.

INPUT SQL>select job,sum (sal) from emp group by job;
RESULT
JOB SUM(SAL)
--------- ----------
ANALYST 6000
CLERK 23050
MANAGER 8275
PRESIDENT 5000
12
SALESMAN 5600
assistant 2200
clerk 2003
7 rows selected.
2. Display lowest paid employee details under each manager.

INPUT SQL>select ename, sal from emp where sal in (select min(sal) from emp group by
mgr);
RESULT
ENAME SAL
---------- ----------
chai 3
JAMES 950
MILLER 1000
ADAMS 1100
russel 2200
5 rows selected.
3. Display number of employees working in each department and their

department name.
INPUT SQL> select dname, count (ename) from emp, dept where emp.deptno=dept.deptno
group by dname;
RESULT
DNAME COUNT(ENAME)
-------------- ------------
ACCOUNTING 3
RESEARCH 5
SALES 9
4. Display the sales cost of package developed by each programmer.

INPUT SQL>select pname, sum(scost) from software group by pname;
RESULT
PNAME SUM(SCOST)
-------------------- ----------
john 12000
kamala 12000
raju 12333
3 rows selected.
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5. Display the number of packages sold by each programmer.
INPUT SQL>select pname, count(title) from software group by pname;
RESULT
PNAME COUNT(TITLE)
-------------------- ------------
john 1
kamala 1
raju 1
ramana 1
rani 1
5 rows selected.
6. Display the number of packages in each language for which the
development cost is less than thousand.
INPUT SQL>select devin, count(title) from software where dcost < 1000 group by devin;
RESULT
DEVIN COUNT(TITLE)
---------- ------------
cobol 1
7. Display each institute name with number of students.

INPUT SQL>select splace, count(pname) from study group by splace;
RESULT
SPLACE COUNT(PNAME)
-------------------- ------------
BDPS 2
BITS 1
BNRILLIANI 1
COIT 1
HYD 1
5 rows selected.
8. How many copies of package have the least difference between

development and selling cost, were sold?
INPUT SQL>select sold from software where scost – dcost=(select min(scost – dcost) from
software);
RESULT
SOLD
---------
11
14
9. Which is the costliest package developed in Pascal.
INPUT SQL>select title from software where devin = ‘PASCAL’ and dcost = (select
max(dcost)from software where devin = ‘PASCAL’);
RESULT
no rows selected
10. Which language was used to develop most no .of packages.

INPUT SQL>select devin, count (*) from software group by devin having count(*) = (select
max(count(*) ) from software group by devin);
RESULT
DEVIN COUNT(*)
---------- ----------
jsp 2
11.Who are the male programmers earning below the average salary of
female programmers?
INPUT SQL>select pname from programmer where sal < (select avg(sal) from programmer
where sex = ‘F’) and sex = ‘M’;
RESULT
PNAME
--------------------
vijay
12. Display the details of software developed by the male programmers

earning more than 3000/-.
INPUT SQL>select programmer.pname, title, devin from programmer, software where sal >
3000 and sex = ‘M’ and programmer.pname = software.pname;
RESULT
no rows selected
13. Display the details of software developed in c language by female

programmers of pragathi.
INPUT SQL>select software.pname, title, devin, scost, dcost, sold from programmer,
software, study where devin = ‘c’ and sex =’F’ and splace = ‘pragathi’ and
programmer.pname = software.pname and software.pname = study.pname;
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14. Which language has been stated by the most of the programmers as
proficiency one?
INPUT SQL>select prof1, count(*) from programmer group by prof1 having count (*) =
(select max (count (*) ) from programmer group by prof1);
Writing Nested Queries.

To write queries using Set operations and to write nested queries.
Set Operations:
UNION - OR
INTERSECT - AND
EXCEPT - - NOT
NESTED QUERY:- A nested query makes use of another sub-query to compute or retrieve
the information.
1. Find the name of the institute in which the person studied and
developed the costliest package.
INPUT SQL>select splace, pname from study where pname = (select pname from software
where scost = (select max (scost) from software);
RESULT
SPLACE PNAME
------------ -------------
SAHBHARI MARY
2. Find the salary and institute of a person who developed the highest
selling package.
INPUT SQL> select study.pname, sal, splace from study, programmer where study.pname =
programmer.pname and study.pname = (select pname from software where scost = (select
max (scost) from software));
RESULT
PNAME SAL SPLACE

----------- ------ -----------
MARY 4500 SABHARI
16
3. How many packages were developed by the person who developed the
cheapest package.
INPUT SQL>select pname, count (title) from software where dcost = (select min(dcost)
from software) group by pname;
RESULT
PNAME COUNT(TITLE)
------------- ----------------------
VIJAY 1
4. Calculate the amount to be recovered for those packages whose

development cost has not yet recovered.
INPUT SQL>select title , (dcost-scost) from software where dcost > scost;
5. Display the title, scost, dcost, difference of scost and dcost in the
descending order of difference.
INPUT SQL> select title, scost, dcost, (scost - dcost) from software descending order by
(scost-dcost);
6. Display the details of those who draw the same salary.

INPUT SQL> select p.pname, p.sal from programmer p, programmer t where p.pname <>
t.pname and p.sal = t.sal;(or)
INPUT SQL>select pname,sal from programmer t where pname<>t.pname and sal= t.sal;
Writing Queries using functions.
AIM: To write queries using single row functions and group functions.
1. Display the names and dob of all programmers who were born in
january.
INPUT SQL>select pname , dob from programmer where to_char (dob,’MON’)=’JAN’;
2. Calculate the experience in years of each programmer and display along

with programmer name in descending order.
INPUT SQL> select pname, round (months_between(sysdate, doj)/12, 2) "EXPERIENCE"
from programmer order by months_between (sysdate, doj) desc;
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3. List out the programmer names who will celebrate their birthdays
during current month.
INPUT SQL>select pname from programmer where to_char(dob,’MON’) like to_char
(sysdate, ‘MON’);
4. Display the least experienced programmer’s details.

INPUT SQL>select * from programmer where doj = (select max (doj) from programmer);
5. Who is the most experienced programmer knowing pascal.

INPUT SQL>select pname from programmer where doj = (select min (doj) from
programmer);
6. Who is the youngest programmer born in 1965.

INPUT SQL> select pname , dob from programmer where dob = (select max (dob) from
programmer where to_char (dob,'yy') = 65);
7. In which year, most of the programmers are born.

INPUT SQL>select to_char (dob , ‘YY’) from programmer group by to_char (dob, ‘YY’)
having count(*) = (select max (count(*)) from programmer group by to_char(dob,’YY’);
8. In which month most number of programmers are joined.

INPUT SQL>select to_char (doj,’YY’) from programmer group by to_char (doj,’YY’)
having count (*) = (select max (count(*)) from programmer group by to_char (doj,’YY’);
9. What is the length of the shortest name in programmer table ?

INPUT SQL>select length (pname) from programmer where length (pname) = select min
( length (pname) from programmer);
10. Display the names of the programmers whose name contains up to 5

characters.
INPUT SQL>select pname from programmer where length (pname) <=5;
11. Display all packages names in small letters and corresponding

programmer names in uppercase letters.
INPUT SQL>select lower (title), upper (pname) from software;
18
Writing Queries on views.
AIM: To write queries on views.
1. Create a view from single table containing all columns from the base
table.
SQL>create view view1 as (select * from programmer);
2. Create a view from single table with selected columns.

SQL>create a view view2 as (select pname,dob,doj,sex,sal from programmer);
3. Create a view from two tables with all columns.

SQL>create view xyz as select * from programmer full natural join software;
4. Create a view from two tables with selected columns.

SQL> create view lmn as (select programmer, pname, title, devin from programmer, software
where sal < 3000 and programmer.pname = software.pname);
5. Check all DML commands with above 4 views.

INPUT SQL> insert into view1 values (‘ramu’,’12-sep-03’,’28-jan-
85’,’f’,’dbase’,’oracle’,74000);
RESULT
1 row created;
INPUT SQL>update view1 set salary =50000 where pname like ‘raju’;
RESULT 1 row updated.
Note: update command does not works for all queries on views.
INPUT SQL>delete from view1 where pname like ‘raju’;
RESULT 1 row deleted.
19
6. Drop views which you generated.
INPUT SQL>drop view view1;
RESULT View dropped;
INPUT SQL>drop view view2;
RESULT View dropped;
INPUT SQL>drop view xyz;
Writing PL/SQL block for insertion into a table.
To write a PL/SQL block for inserting rows into EMPDET table with the following
Calculations:
HRA=50% OF BASIC
DA=20% OF BASIC
PF=7% OF BASIC
NETPAY=BASIC+DA+HRA-PF
INPUT
DECLARE
ENO1 empdet.eno%type;
ENAME1 empdet.name%type;
DEPTNO1 empdet.deptno%type;
BASIC1 empdet.basic%type;
HRA1 empdet.HRA%type;
DA1 empdet.DA%type;
PF1 empdet.pf%type;
NETPAY1 empdet.netpay%type;
BEGIN
ENO1:=&ENO1;
ENAME1:='&ENAME1';
DEPTNO1:=&DEPTNO1;
BASIC1:=&BASIC1;
HRA1:=(BASIC1*50)/100;
DA1:=(BASIC1*20)/100;
PF1:=(BASIC1*7)/100;
NETPAY1:=BASIC1+HRA1+DA1-PF1;
INSERT INTO EMPDET VALUES (ENO1, ENAME1, DEPTNO1, BASIC1,

HRA1, DA1, PF1, NETPAY1);
END;
20
RESULT:
SQL> @BASIC
Enter value for eno1: 104
old 11: ENO1:=&ENO1;
new 11: ENO1:=104;
Enter value for ename1: SRINIVAS REDDY
old 12: ENAME1:='&ENAME1';
new 12: ENAME1:='SRINIVAS REDDY';
Enter value for deptno1: 10
old 13: DEPTNO1:=&DEPTNO1;
new 13: DEPTNO1:=10;
Enter value for basic1: 6000
old 14: BASIC1:=&BASIC1;
new 14: BASIC1:=6000;
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
SQL>/
Enter value for eno1: 105
old 11: ENO1:=&ENO1;
new 11: ENO1:=105;
Enter value for ename1: CIRAJ
old 12: ENAME1:='&ENAME1';
new 12: ENAME1:='CIRAJ';
Enter value for deptno1: 10
old 13: DEPTNO1:=&DEPTNO1;
new 13: DEPTNO1:=10;
Enter value for basic1: 6000
old 14: BASIC1:=&BASIC1;
new 14: BASIC1:=6000;
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMPDET;

RESULT
ENO NAME DEPTNO BASIC HRA DA PF NETPAY
--------- ------------------------------ --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- -----------------------
101 SANTOSH 10 5000 2500 1000 350 8150
102 SHANKAR 20 5000 2500 1000 350 8150
103 SURESH 20 5500 2750 1100 385 8965
104 SRINIVASA REDDY 10 6000 3000 1200 420 9780
105 CIRAJ 10 6000 3000 1200 420 9780
21
Writing PL/SQL block for checking armstrong number
To write a PL/SQL block to check whether given number is Armstrong or not.
INPUT
DECLARE
num number(5);
rem number(5);
s number(5):=0;
num1 number(5);
BEGIN
num:=&num;
num1:=num;
while(num>0)
loop
rem:=mod(num,10);
s:=s+power(rem,3);
num:=trunc(num/10);
End loop;
if (s=num1)then
dbms_RESULT.put_line(num1||' IS ARMSTRONG NUMBER ');
else
dbms_RESULT.put_line(num1||' IS NOT ARMSTRONG NUMBER ');
End if;
END;
/
RESULT:
SQL>@arm
Enter value for num: 153
old 7: num:=&num;
new 7: num:=153;
153 IS ARMSTRONG NUMBER
SQL> /
old 7: num:=&num;
new 7: num:=123;
123 IS NOT ARMSTRONG NUMBER
22
Writing a PL/SQL block for checking a number even or odd.
AIM: To write a PL/SQL block to check whether a given number is Even or Odd.
INPUT
DECLARE
num number(5);
rem number;
BEGIN
num:=&num;
rem:=mod(num,2);
if rem=0
then
dbms_RESULT.put_line(' Number '||num||' is Even');
else
dbms_RESULT.put_line(' Number '||num||' is Odd');
end if;
END;
RESULT:
SQL>start even
old 5: num:=&num;
new 5: num:=6;
Number 6 is Even
SQL> /
old 5: num:=&num;
new 5: num:=3;
Number 3 is Odd
Writing PL/SQL block to find sum of digits of a given number.
23
To write a PL/SQL block to find Sum of Digits of a given Number.
INPUT
DECLARE
num number(5);
rem number(5);
sm number(5):=0;
num1 number(5);
BEGIN
num:=&num;
num1:=num;
while(num>0) loop
rem:=mod(num,10);
sm:=sm+rem;
num:=trunc(num/10);
end loop;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('SUM OF DIGITS OF '||num1||' IS: '||sm);
end;
/
RESULT:
SQL> @sum
INPUT truncated to 2 characters
old 7: num:=&num;
new 7: num:=123;
SUM OF DIGITS OF 123 IS: 6
SQL> @sum
INPUT truncated to 2 characters
old 7: num:=&num;
new 7: num:=456;
SUM OF DIGITS OF 456 IS: 15
24
Writing PL/SQL block for generating Fibonacci series.
To write a PL/SQL block to Generate Fibonacci Series
INPUT
DECLARE
num number(5);
f1 number(5):=0;
f2 number(5):=1;
f3 number(5);
i number(5):=3;
BEGIN
num:=&num;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('THE FIBONACCI SERIES IS:');
dbms_RESULT.put_line(f1);
while(i<=num) loop
f3:=f1+f2;
f1:=f2;
f2:=f3;
i:=i+1;
end loop;
END;
/
RESULT:
SQL> start fib
old 8: num:=&num;
new 8: num:=10;
THE FIBONACCI SERIES IS:
0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34
25
Writing PL/SQL block for checking palendrome.
To write a PL/SQL block to Check the Given String is Palindrome or Not.
INPUT
DECLARE
name1 varchar2(20);
name2 varchar2(20);
l number(5);
BEGIN
name1:='&name1';
l:=length(name1);
while l>0 loop
name2:=name2||substr(name1,l,1);
l:=l-1;
end loop;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('REVERSE OF STRING IS:'||NAME2);
if(name1=name2) then
dbms_RESULT.put_line(name1||' IS PALINDROME ');
else
dbms_RESULT.put_line(name1||' IS NOT PALINDROME ');
end if;
END;
/
RESULT
Enter value for name1: LIRIL
old 6: name1:='&name1';
new 6: name1:='LIRIL';
REVERSE OF STRING IS:LIRIL
LIRIL IS PALINDROME
SQL> /
Enter value for name1: MADAM
old 6: name1:='&name1';
new 6: name1:='MADAM';
REVERSE OF STRING IS:MADAM
MADAM IS PALINDROME
26
Writing PL/SQL block to demonstrate Cursors.
To write a Cursor to display the list of Employees and Total Salary Department wise.
INPUT
DECLARE
cursor c1 is select * from dept;
cursor c2 is select * from emp;
s emp.sal%type;
BEGIN
for i in c1 loop
s:=0;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('----------------------------------------------');
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Department is :' || i.deptno ||' Department name is:' ||
i.dname);
dbms_RESULT.put_line('-------------------------------------------');
for j in c2 loop
if ( i.deptno=j.deptno) then
s:=s+j.sal;
dbms_RESULT.put_line(j.empno|| ' '|| j.ename || ' '|| j.sal );
end if;
end loop;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Total salary is: '|| s);
end loop;
END;
RESULT:
SQL> @abc
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Department is :10 Department name is : ACCOUNTING
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7782 CLARK 2450
7839 KING 5000
7934 MILLER 1300
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total salary is: 8750
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
27
Department is :20 Department name is:RESEARCH
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7369 SMITH 800
7566 JONES 2975
7788 SCOTT 3000
7876 ADAMS 1100
7902 FORD 3000
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Department is :30 Department name is:SALES
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7499 ALLEN 1600
7521 WARD 1250
7654 MARTIN 1250
7698 BLAKE 2850
7844 TURNER 1500
7900 JAMES 950
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Department is :40 Department name is:OPERATIONS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total salary is: 0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
28
Writing PL/SQL CURSOR
To write a Cursor to display the list of employees who are Working as a Managers or
Analyst.
INPUT
DECLARE
cursor c(jb varchar2) is select ename from emp where job=jb;
em emp.job%type;
BEGIN
open c('MANAGER');
dbms_RESULT.put_line(' EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGERS ARE:');
loop
fetch c into em;
exit when c%notfound;
dbms_RESULT.put_line(em);
end loop;
close c;
open c('ANALYST');
dbms_RESULT.put_line(' EMPLOYEES WORKING AS ANALYST ARE:');
loop
fetch c into em;
dbms_RESULT.put_line(em);
end loop;
close c;
END;
RESULT:
EMPLOYEES WORKING AS MANAGERS ARE:

JONES
BLAKE
CLARK
EMPLOYEES WORKING AS ANALYST ARE:
SCOTT
FORD
29
To write a Cursor to display List of Employees from Emp Table in PL/SQL block
INPUT
DECLARE
cursor c is select empno, ename, deptno, sal from emp ;
i emp.empno%type;
j emp.ename%type;
k emp.deptno%type;
l emp.sal%type;
BEGIN
open c;
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Empno, name, deptno, salary of employees are:= ');
loop
fetch c into i, j, k, l;
dbms_RESULT.put_line(i||' '||j||' '||k||' '||l);
end loop;
close c;
END;
RESULT:
SQL> @EMP
Empno,name,deptno,salary of employees are:=
7369 SMITH 20 800
7499 ALLEN 30 1600
7521 WARD 30 1250
7566 JONES 20 2975
7654 MARTIN 30 1250
7698 BLAKE 30 2850
7782 CLARK 10 2450
7788 SCOTT 20 3000
7839 KING 10 5000
7844 TURNER 30 1500
7876 ADAMS 20 1100
7900 JAMES 30 950
7902 FORD 20 3000
7934 MILLER 10 1300
30
To write a Cursor to find employee with given job and deptno.
INPUT
DECLARE
cursor c1(j varchar2, dn number) is select empno, ename from emp where job=j and
deptno=dn;
row1 emp%rowtype;
jb emp.job%type;
d emp.deptno%type;
BEGIN
jb:='&jb';
d:=&d;
open c1(jb,d);
fetch c1 into row1.empno,row1.ename;
if c1%notfound then
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Employee does not exist');
else
dbms_RESULT.put_line('empno is:'||row1.empno||' ' ||'employee name is:'||
row1.ename);
end if;
END;
RESULT:
SQL> @CUR
Enter value for jb: MANAGER
old 7: jb:='&jb';
new 7: jb:='MANAGER';
Enter value for d: 20
old 8: d:=&d;
new 8: d:=20;
empno is:7566 employee name is:JONES
SQL> /
Enter value for jb: CLERK
old 7: jb:='&jb';
new 7: jb:='CLERK';
Enter value for d: 40
old 8: d:=&d;
new 8: d:=40;
Employee does not exist
31
Writing PL/SQL BLOCK using string functions.
To write a PL/SQL block to apply String Functions on a given input String.
INPUT
DECLARE
a varchar2(20);
l number(5);
BEGIN
a:='&a';
l:=length(a);
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Lower Function:' || lower(a));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using UPPER Function:' || upper(a));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Initcap Function:' || initcap(a));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Substring Function:' || substr(a,l,1));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Substring Function:' || substr(a,1,3));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Ltrim function for xxxabcxxxx:' ||
ltrim('xxxabcxxxx','x'));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Rtrim function for xxxabcxxxx:'||
rtrim('xxxabcxxxx','x'));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Lpad function :'|| lpad(a,l+4,'*'));
dbms_RESULT.put_line('Using Rpad function :'|| rpad(a,l+4,'*'));
END;
RESULT:
SQL>@STR
Enter value for a: santosh reddy
old 5: a:='&a';
new 5: a:='santosh reddy';
Using Lower Function:santosh reddy
Using UPPER Function:SANTOSH REDDY
Using Initcap Function:Santosh Reddy
Using Substring Function:y
Using Substring Function:san
Using Ltrim function for xxxabcxxxx:abcxxxx
Using Rtrim function for xxxabcxxxx:xxxabc
Using Lpad function :****santosh reddy
Using Rpad function :santosh reddy****

SQL> /
Enter value for a: UMA SHANKAR
old 5: a:='&a';
new 5: a:='UMA SHANKAR';
Using Lower Function:uma shankar
32
Using UPPER Function:UMA SHANKAR
Using Initcap Function:Uma Shankar
Using Substring Function:R
Using Substring Function:UMA
Using Ltrim function for xxxabcxxxx:abcxxxx
Using Rtrim function for xxxabcxxxx:xxxabc
Using Lpad function :****UMA SHANKAR
Using Rpad function :UMA SHANKAR****
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed
33
Writing PL/SQL triggers
To write a TRIGGER to ensure that DEPT TABLE does not contain duplicate of
null values in DEPTNO column.
INPUT
CREATE OR RELPLACE TRIGGER trig1 before insert on dept for each row
DECLARE
a number;
BEGIN
if(:new.deptno is Null) then
raise_application_error(-20001,'error::deptno cannot be null');
else
select count(*) into a from dept where deptno=:new.deptno;
if(a=1) then
raise_application_error(-20002,'error:: cannot have duplicate deptno');
end if;
end if;
END;
RESULT:
SQL> @trigger
Trigger created.
SQL> select * from dept;

DEPTNO DNAME LOC
--------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
SQL> insert into dept values(&deptnp,'&dname','&loc');

Enter value for deptnp: null
Enter value for dname: marketing
Enter value for loc: hyd
old 1: insert into dept values(&deptnp,'&dname','&loc')
new 1: insert into dept values(null,'marketing','hyd')
insert into dept values(null,'marketing','hyd')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20001: error::deptno cannot be null
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.TRIG1", line 5
34
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.TRIG1'
SQL> /
Enter value for deptnp: 10
Enter value for dname: manager
Enter value for loc: hyd
new 1: insert into dept values(10,'manager','hyd')
insert into dept values(10,'manager','hyd')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-20002: error:: cannot have duplicate deptno
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.TRIG1", line 9
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.TRIG1'
SQL> /
Enter value for deptnp: 50
Enter value for dname: MARKETING
Enter value for loc: HYDERABAD
new 1: insert into dept values(50,'MARKETING','HYDERABAD')
1 row created.
SQL> select * from dept;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC

--------- -------------- -------------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
20 RESEARCH DALLAS
30 SALES CHICAGO
40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
50 MARKETING HYDE
35
Locking Table.
AIM: To learn commands related to Table Locking
LOCK TABLE Statement Manually lock one or more tables.

Syntax:
LOCK TABLE [schema.] table [options] IN lockmode MODE [NOWAIT]
LOCK TABLE [schema.] view [options] IN lockmode MODE [NOWAIT]
Options:
PARTITION (partition)
SUBPARTITION (subpartition)
@dblink
lockmodes:
EXCLUSIVE
SHARE
ROW EXCLUSIVE
SHARE ROW EXCLUSIVE
ROW SHARE* | SHARE UPDATE*
If NOWAIT is omitted Oracle will wait until the table is available.
Several tables can be locked with a single command - separate with commas
e.g. LOCK TABLE table1,table2,table3 IN ROW EXCLUSIVE MODE;
Default Locking Behaviour :

A pure SELECT will not lock any rows.
INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE's - will place a ROW EXCLUSIVE lock.
SELECT...FROM...FOR UPDATE NOWAIT - will place a ROW EXCLUSIVE lock.
Multiple Locks on the same rows with LOCK TABLE
Even when a row is locked you can always perform a SELECT (because SELECT does not
lock any rows) in addition to this, each type of lock will allow additional locks to be granted
as follows.
ROW SHARE = Allow ROW EXCLUSIVE or ROW SHARE or SHARE locks to be granted
to the locked rows.
ROW EXCLUSIVE = Allow ROW EXCLUSIVE or ROW SHARE locks to be granted to

the locked rows.
36
SHARE ROW EXCLUSIVE = Allow ROW SHARE locks to be granted to the locked rows.
SHARE = Allow ROW SHARE or SHARE locks to be granted to the locked rows.
EXCLUSIVE = Allow SELECT queries only
Although it is valid to place more than one lock on a row, UPDATES and DELETE's may
still cause a wait if a conflicting row lock is held by another transaction.
Generation of Forms using ORACLE FORM BUILDER

To design a form using Oracle Developer 2000
Introduction
Use Form Builder to simplify for the creation of data-entry screens, also known as Forms.
Forms are the applications that connect to a database, retrieve information requested by the
user, present it in a layout specified by Form designer, and allow the user to modify or add
information. Form Builder allows you to build forms quickly and easily.

In this Hands-On, you learn how to: Create a Data block for the “Customer” table, Create a
layout, Use “content” canvas, Use “execute query”, Navigate a table, Use next, previous
record, Enter query, Manipulate table’s record, Insert, Update, Delete and Save record.

Form Builder Tool
Open the "Form Builder" tool.
Welcome window
You will get the ‘Welcome to the Form Builder’ window. If you don’t want to get this
window anymore uncheck the ‘Display at startup’ box. You can start your work with any of
the following options:
Use the data Block Wizard
Build a new form manually
Open an existing form
Build a form based on a template
The default is ‘Use the data Block Wizard.’ If you want to build a new form manually, click
on "Cancel” or check ‘Build a new form manually’ and click ‘OK.’
Connect to database
In the ‘Object Navigator’ window, highlight "Database Objects." Go to the Main menu and
choose "File," then "Connect."

In the ‘Connect’ window, login in as “scott” password “tiger,” then click “CONNECT.”
37
Notice that the box next to ‘Database Objects’ is not empty anymore and it has a ‘+’ sign in
it. That will indicate that this item is expandable and you are able to see its entire objects.

Click on the ‘+’ sign next to the ‘Database Objects’ to expand all database schemas.

Create a Module
In the ‘Object Navigator’ window, highlight module1. This is a default name. Go to the Main
menu and choose “File,” select “Save as” to store the new object in the “iself” folder and
save it as customer data entry. "c:_de." In this example the ‘DE’ abbreviation stands for Data
Entry.

Create a Data Block
In the ‘Object Navigator’ window, highlight "Data Blocks,” and click on the "create” icon.
The ‘Create’ icon is in the vertical tool bar in the ‘Object Navigator’ window. It is a green
‘+’ sign. If you drag your cursor on the icon a tooltip will show ‘Create.’

New Data Block
In the ‘New Data Block’ window, choose the default option “Data Block Wizard” and click
"OK."

Welcome Data Block
In the ‘Welcome Data Block Wizard’ window click on the “NEXT” icon.
Type of Data Block
Select the type of data block you would like to create by clicking on a radio button. Select the
default option ‘Table or View’ and then click “NEXT” again.
Selecting Tables
Click on “browse.” In the ‘Tables’ window, highlight the "cust11” table; then click "OK."

Selecting columns for the Data Block Wizard
To choose all columns, click on the two arrow signs in the ‘Data Block Wizard’ window. To
choose selected columns, click on the one arrow sign. And then select all columns, and click
“next.”

Layout Wizard
38
End of the Data Block Wizard and beginning of the Layout Wizard
In the ‘Congratulations’ screen, use the default checkmark radio button (Create the data
block, then call the Layout Wizard), and click "Finish." You can also use the Data Block
Wizard to modify your existing data block. Simply select the data block in the Object
Navigator and click the Data Block Wizard toolbar button, or choose ‘Data Block wizard’
from the ‘Tools’ menu.

Welcome screen
In the ‘Welcome to the Layout Wizard’ window, click ”Next.”
Selecting canvas
In the ‘Layout Wizard’ window, select the "new canvas" option. Canvas is a place that you
will have your objects such as columns, titles, pictures, etc. If you have already had your
canvas, select the canvas and then click on the next. The following are different types of
canvases: Content, Stacked, Vertical Toolbar, Horizontal Toolbar, and Tab.
Think of the ‘Content’ canvas as one flat place to have all your objects. In the stacked
canvas, you can have multiple layers of objects and it is the same as the tab canvas. You use
the vertical or horizontal toolbar canvases for your push buttons. Check the different types of
canvases by clicking on the ‘down arrow’ box next to the ‘Type’ field. Select "content," then
click “Next.”

Selecting Columns for the Layout Wizard
In the ‘Layout Wizard’ window, select all the columns. These are the columns that you want
to be displayed on the canvas. Then click “Next.”

Change your objects appearances
Change size or prompt if needed. In this window, you can enter a prompt, width, and height
for each item on the canvas. You can change the measurement units. As a default the default
units for item width and height are points. You can change it to inch or centimeter. When you
change size, click “Next.”

Selecting a layout style
Select a layout style for your frame by clicking a radio button. Select "Form," if you want
one record at a time to be displayed. Select “Tabular,” if you want more than one record at a
time to be displayed. Select "Forms," and then click “next.”
Record layout
39
Type the "Frame Title" and click "next." Checkmark the ‘Display Scrollbar’ box when you
use multiple records or the ‘Tabular’ option.
Congratulation Screen
In the ‘Congratulations’ window, click "Finish."

You will see the output layout screen.
Make some window adjustments and then run the form. To run the form, click on the ‘Run’
icon. The ‘Run’ icon is on the horizontal toolbar in the ‘CUSTOMER_DE’ canvas.

The object module should be compiled successfully before executing the Form.
Execute Query
Click on the "Execute Query" icon below the main menu. If you drag the cursor on the
toolbar in the ‘Forms Runtime’ window, a tooltip will be displayed and you see ‘Execute
Query.’
So to know all your option, drag your cursor to view all the icon descriptions.

Next Record
Click on the "Next Record" icon to navigate to the next record.
Previous Record
Click on the "Previous Record" icon to navigate to the previous record.

This is an easy way to navigate through the “Customer” table.
Enter Query
Click on the "Enter Query" icon to query selected records.
Insert Record
Click "Insert Record" to add new customer. All items on the forms will be blanked. You can
either type all the customer information or duplicate it from pervious record.
Duplicate Record
To duplicate the previous record, go to the main menu and select the ‘Record’ sub-menu. A
drop down menu will be displayed. Select the ‘Duplicate’ option in the sub-menu.
Apply the changes. Remember in this stage, your record was inserted but not committed yet.
Next and Previous Record
40
Click "next record" and "previous record" to navigate through the records and the one was
added.
Save transactions
Click "Save" to commit the insert statement.

Delete Record
Click "Remove Record" to delete the record.

Lock a Record
You can also lock the record.
Exit from Form Runtime
Exit the FORM Runtime. If you have not committed any transaction, you will be prompted to
save changes. Click “YES” to save changes.
Click “OK” for acknowledgement.

Don’t forget to save the Form.
RABAD
41
Selecting the type of form to create
42
Object wizard
43
Selecting the canvas on which data block can be displayed
44
Form showing the Employee details
45
EXPT#28. Generating REPORTS using Oracle Developer 2000
AIM: To design reports using Oracle Developer 2000
Introduction
Tabular report shows data in a table format. It is similar in concept to the idea of an Oracle
table. Oracle, by default, returns output from your select statement in tabular format.

Hands-on
In this Hands-On, your client is a stock broker that keeps track of its customer stock
transactions. You have been assigned to write the reports based on their reports layout
requirements.
Your client wants you to create a simple listing report to show list of the stock trades by
using stocks table for their brokerage company

Your tasks are:
1- Write a tabular report.
2- Apply user layout Format mask.
3- Run the report.
4- Test the repot.

You will learn how to: use report wizard, object navigator, report builder, “date model”,
property palette, work on query and group box, see report style, use tabular style, navigating
through report’s record, change the format mask for dollar, numeric and date items.
Open Report Builder tool

Open the "Report Builder" tool.

Connect to database
In the Object Navigator, highlight "Database Objects,” choose "File," then select the
"Connect" option.
In the ‘Connect’ window, login as “iself” password schooling, then click “CONNECT.”

Save a report
In the Object Navigator, highlight the "untitled" report, choose “File,” and select the “Save
as” option.
In the ‘Save as’ window, make sure to save the report in the ISELF folder and name it
"rpt01_stock_history,” report number 1 stock history.

Data Model
In the Object Navigator, double click on the "Data Model" icon.

Create SQL box
In the Data Model window, click on the "SQL Query" icon. Then drag the plus sign cursor
and click it anywhere in the “Data Model” screen where you wish your object to be.

In the ‘SQL Query Statement’ window, write a query to read all the stocks record sorted by
their symbol.
46
(SQL Query Statement)
SELECT * FROM stocks
ORDER BY symbol
Click “OK.”

Change SQL box’s name
In the Data Model window, in the “SQL” box, right click on the ‘Q_1’ and open its property
palette.
In its property palette, change the name to Q_STOCKS. Then close the window.

Change GROUP box’s name
In the Data Model, right click on the group box (G_SYMBOL) and open its property palette.
In the Group property palette, change the name to ‘G_STOCKS,’ and close the window.

Open Report Wizard
In the Data Model, click on the ‘Report Wizard’ icon on the horizontal tool bar.
In the Style tab, on the Report Wizard window, type ‘Stock History’ in the Title box and
choose the report style as ‘Tabular.’
Notice that when you change the report style a layout of that report will be displayed on the
screen.
Choose a different style to display its layout of its report style.

Data, Fields, Totals, Labels and Template tabs
Click “NEXT” to go to the Data tab. In the ‘SQL Query Statement’ verify your query.
Click “NEXT” to navigate to the Fields tab, select the fields that you would like to be display
in your report. Select all the columns to be display.
Click “NEXT” to navigate to Totals tab, select the fields for which you would like to
calculate totals. We have none in this hands-on exercise.

Click “NEXT” to open the Labels tab, modify the labels and widths for your fields and totals
as desired.
Click “NEXT” again to go to the Template tab, and choose a template for your report. Your
report will inherit the template’s colors, fonts, line widths, and structure.
Use the default template and click “finish.”

Running a report
Now, you should have your output report on the screen.

Resize an object
Maximize the output report and format the report layout. To resize an object , select it and
drag its handler to the preferred size.

Move an object
To move an object, select and drag it while the cursor is on the object.

This is a simple report.
47
Navigate through the output
To navigate through the output report in the Report Editor - Live Pre-viewer, click on the
"next page" or "previous page" icon on the horizontal toolbar.
Do the same with the "first page" or "last page" icon.

Use the “zoom in” and “zoom out” icon to preview the report.
Know report’s functions

To know each icon functionalities, drag your cursor on it and a tooltip will display its
function.

Change Format Mask
To change the "format mask" of a column, the column should be selected. Then go to the
toolbar and click on the “$” icon, "add decimal place," and the “right justify” format to the all
currency columns (Todays Low, Todays High, and current price)

Select the “traded today” column, and click on the ‘,0’ icon (apply commas), and make it
right justify.
Also, you can change any attributes of field by opening its property palette. To open an
object’s property palette, right click on it and select the Property Palette option.
Right click on the "trade date" column and open its "property palette."
Change the date "Format Mask" property and make it “year 2000 complaint (MM-DD-RR).”
48
Selecting type of report
49
Creating reports
Selecting the format of reports
50
Selecting the Table in database
51
Selecting the columns in the report
52
Modify the labels in a table
53
Choose a template to represent the report
54
To specify the completion of report generation
55
56
EXPT#29. Providing Security using GRANT and REVOKE.
AIM: To learn GRANT and REVOKE commands to restrict privileges.
(1) GRANT Statement

Grant privileges to a user (or to a user role)
Syntax:
Grant System-wide Privs:
GRANT system_priv(s) TO grantee

[IDENTIFIED BY password] [WITH ADMIN OPTION]
GRANT role TO grantee

GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES TO grantee

Grant privs on specific objects:
GRANT object_priv [(column, column,...)]

ON [schema.]object
TO grantee [WITH GRANT OPTION] [WITH HIERARCHY
OPTION]
GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES [(column, column,...)]

ON [schema.]object
OPTION]

ON DIRECTORY directory_name
OPTION]

ON JAVA [RE]SOURCE [schema.]object
OPTION]
grantee:
user
role
57
PUBLIC
system_privs:
CREATE SESSION - Allows user to connect to the database
UNLIMITED TABLESPACE - Use an unlimited amount of any
tablespace.
SELECT ANY TABLE - Query tables, views, or mviews in any
schema
UPDATE ANY TABLE - Update rows in tables and views in any
schema
INSERT ANY TABLE - Insert rows into tables and views in any
schema
Also System Admin rights to CREATE, ALTER or DROP:
cluster, context, database, link, dimension, directory,
index,
materialized view, operator, outline, procedure, profile,
role,
rollback segment, sequence, session, synonym, table,
tablespace,
trigger, type, user, view. (full list of system privs)
object_privs:
SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE, ALTER, DEBUG, EXECUTE, INDEX, REFERENCES
roles:
SYSDBA, SYSOPER, OSDBA, OSOPER, EXP_FULL_DATABASE, IMP_FULL_DATABASE
SELECT_CATALOG_ROLE, EXECUTE_CATALOG_ROLE, DELETE_CATALOG_ROLE
AQ_USER_ROLE, AQ_ADMINISTRATOR_ROLE - advanced queuing
SNMPAGENT - Enterprise Manager/Intelligent Agent.
RECOVERY_CATALOG_OWNER - rman
HS_ADMIN_ROLE - heterogeneous services
plus any user defined roles you have available
Notes:
Several Object_Privs can be assigned in a single GRANT statement

e.g.
GRANT SELECT (empno), UPDATE (sal) ON scott.emp TO emma
WITH HIERARCHY OPTION will grant the object privilege on all subobjects, including
any created after the GRANT statement is issued.
WITH GRANT OPTION will enable the grantee to grant those object privileges to other
users and roles.
"GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES..." may also be written as "GRANT ALL..."
58
(ii) REVOKE Statement
Revoke privileges from users or roles.
Syntax:
Roles:
REVOKE role FROM {user, | role, |PUBLIC}
System Privs:
REVOKE system_priv(s) FROM {user, | role, |PUBLIC}
REVOKE ALL FROM {user, | role, |PUBLIC}
Object Privs:
REVOKE object_priv [(column1, column2..)] ON
[schema.]object
FROM {user, | role, |PUBLIC} [CASCADE CONSTRAINTS]
[FORCE]
REVOKE object_priv [(column1, column2..)] ON

[schema.]object
[FORCE]
REVOKE object_priv [(column1, column2..)] ON DIRECTORY

directory_name
[FORCE]
REVOKE object_priv [(column1, column2..)] ON JAVA

[RE]SOURCE [schema.]object
[FORCE]
key:
object_privs
ALTER, DELETE, EXECUTE, INDEX, INSERT,
REFERENCES, SELECT, UPDATE, ALL PRIVILEGES
system_privs
ALTER ANY INDEX, BECOME USER, CREATE TABLE, DROP ANY VIEW
RESTRICTED SESSION, UNLIMITED TABLESPACE, UPDATE ANY TABLE
59
plus too many others to list here
roles
Standard Oracle roles -
SYSDBA, SYSOPER, OSDBA, OSOPER, EXP_FULL_DATABASE,
IMP_FULL_DATABASE
plus any user defined roles you have available
FORCE, will revoke all privileges from a user-defined-type and mark it's dependent objects
INVALID.
The roles CONNECT, RESOURCE and DBA are now deprecated (supported only for
backwards compatibility) unless you are still running Oracle 6.0
Error ORA-01927 "cannot REVOKE privileges you did not grant" - This usually means you
tried revoking permission from the table owner, e.g.
Oracle will not allow REVOKE select on USER1.Table1 from USER1 Owners of objects
ALWAYS have full permissions on those objects. This is one reason it makes sense to place
tables in one schema and the packaged prodecures used to access those tables in a separate
schema.
REFERENCES:
1. Oracle 9i Release 2 (9.2) SQL Reference,
www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/teaching/facilities/swdoc/oracle9i/server.920/a96540/toc.htm.
2. Oracle 9i Release 1 (9.0.1) SQL Reference,

http://download-east.oracle.com/docs/cd/A91202_01/901_doc/server.901/a90125/toc.htm.
3. An A-Z Index of Oracle SQL Commands (version 9.2)

http://www.ss64.com/ora/.
4. Database Systems Instructor: Prof. Samuel Madden Source: MIT Open Courseware
(http://ocw.mit.edu).
5. RDBMS Lab Guide, www.campusconnect.infosys.com userid:demo@infosys and

passwork:infosys.
6. Orelly PL/SQL Pocket Reference, http://www.unix.org.ua/orelly/oracle/langpkt/index.htm
7. PL/SQL User's Guide and Reference, Release 2 (9.2),

http://www.lc.leidenuniv.nl/awcourse/oracle/appdev.920/a96624/toc.htm.
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VIVA VOICE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. What is database?
A database is a logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning,
representing some aspect of real world and which is designed, built and populated with data
for a specific purpose.
2. What is DBMS?
It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In other
words it is general-purpose software that provides the users with the processes of defining,
constructing and manipulating the database for various applications.
3. What is a Database system?

The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.
4. Advantages of DBMS?
Ø Redundancy is controlled.
Ø Unauthorised access is restricted.
Ø Providing multiple user interfaces.
Ø Enforcing integrity constraints.
Ø Providing backup and recovery.
5. Disadvantage in File Processing System?

Ø Data redundancy & inconsistency.
Ø Difficult in accessing data.
Ø Data isolation.
Ø Data integrity.
Ø Concurrent access is not possible.
Ø Security Problems.
6. Describe the three levels of data abstraction?

The are three levels of abstraction:
Ø Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.
Ø Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored in
database and what relationship among those data.
Ø View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.
7. Define the "integrity rules"
There are two Integrity rules.
Ø Entity Integrity: States that “Primary key cannot have NULL value”
Ø Referential Integrity: States that “Foreign Key can be either a NULL value or should be
Primary Key value of other relation.
8. What is extension and intension?

Extension -
It is the number of tuples present in a table at any instance. This is time dependent.
Intension -
It is a constant value that gives the name, structure of table and the constraints laid on it.
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9. What is System R? What are its two major subsystems?
System R was designed and developed over a period of 1974-79 at IBM San Jose Research
Center. It is a prototype and its purpose was to demonstrate that it is possible to build a
Relational System that can be used in a real life environment to solve real life problems, with
performance at least comparable to that of existing system.
Its two subsystems are
Ø Research Storage
Ø System Relational Data System.
10. How is the data structure of System R different from the relational structure?
Unlike Relational systems in System R
Ø Domains are not supported
Ø Enforcement of candidate key uniqueness is optional
Ø Enforcement of entity integrity is optional
Ø Referential integrity is not enforced
11. What is Data Independence?

Data independence means that “the application is independent of the storage structure and
access strategy of data”. In other words, The ability to modify the schema definition in one
level should not affect the schema definition in the next higher level.
Two types of Data Independence:
Ø Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level should not affect the logical
level.
Ø Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect the view level.
NOTE: Logical Data Independence is more difficult to achieve
12. What is a view? How it is related to data independence?
A view may be thought of as a virtual table, that is, a table that does not really exist in its
own right but is instead derived from one or more underlying base table. In other words,
there is no stored file that direct represents the view instead a definition of view is stored in
data dictionary.
Growth and restructuring of base tables is not reflected in views. Thus the view can insulate
users from the effects of restructuring and growth in the database. Hence accounts for logical
data independence.
13. What is Data Model?

A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics and
constraints.
14. What is E-R model?

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and of
relationship among these objects. Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.
15. What is Object Oriented model?

This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in instance
variables with in the object. An object also contains bodies of code that operate on the object.
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These bodies of code are called methods. Objects that contain same types of values and the
same methods are grouped together into classes.
16. What is an Entity?

It is a 'thing' in the real world with an independent existence.
17. What is an Entity type?

It is a collection (set) of entities that have same attributes.
18. What is an Entity set?

It is a collection of all entities of particular entity type in the database.
19. What is an Extension of entity type?

The collections of entities of a particular entity type are grouped together into an entity set.
20. What is Weak Entity set?
An entity set may not have sufficient attributes to form a primary key, and its primary key
compromises of its partial key and primary key of its parent entity, then it is said to be Weak
Entity set.
21. What is an attribute?

It is a particular property, which describes the entity.
22. What is a Relation Schema and a Relation?

A relation Schema denoted by R(A1, A2, …, An) is made up of the relation name R and the
list of attributes Ai that it contains. A relation is defined as a set of tuples. Let r be the
relation which contains set tuples (t1, t2, t3, ..., tn). Each tuple is an ordered list of n-values
t=(v1,v2, ..., vn).
23. What is degree of a Relation?

It is the number of attribute of its relation schema.
24. What is Relationship?

It is an association among two or more entities.
25. What is Relationship set?

The collection (or set) of similar relationships.
26. What is Relationship type?

Relationship type defines a set of associations or a relationship set among a given set of
entity types.
27. What is degree of Relationship type?

It is the number of entity type participating.
28. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?

A data base schema is specifies by a set of definitions expressed by a special language called
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DDL.
29. What is VDL (View Definition Language)?

It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema.
30. What is SDL (Storage Definition Language)?
This language is to specify the internal schema. This language may specify the mapping
between two schemas.
31. What is Data Storage - Definition Language?

The storage structures and access methods used by database system are specified by a set of
definition in a special type of DDL called data storage-definition language.
32. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?

This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organised by appropriate data
model.
Ø Procedural DML or Low level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed and
how to get those data.
Ø Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed
without specifying how to get those data.
33. What is DML Compiler?

It translates DML statements in a query language into low-level instruction that the query
evaluation engine can understand.
34. What is Query evaluation engine?

It executes low-level instruction generated by compiler.
35. What is DDL Interpreter?

It interprets DDL statements and record them in tables containing metadata.
36. What is Record-at-a-time?

The Low level or Procedural DML can specify and retrieve each record from a set of records.
This retrieve of a record is said to be Record-at-a-time.
37. What is Set-at-a-time or Set-oriented?

The High level or Non-procedural DML can specify and retrieve many records in a single
DML statement. This retrieve of a record is said to be Set-at-a-time or Set-oriented.
38. What is Relational Algebra?

It is procedural query language. It consists of a set of operations that take one or two relations
as input and produce a new relation.
39. What is Relational Calculus?
It is an applied predicate calculus specifically tailored for relational databases proposed by
E.F. Codd. E.g. of languages based on it are DSL ALPHA, QUEL.
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40. How does Tuple-oriented relational calculus differ from domain-oriented relational
calculus
The tuple-oriented calculus uses a tuple variables i.e., variable whose only permitted values
are tuples of that relation. E.g. QUEL
The domain-oriented calculus has domain variables i.e., variables that range over the
underlying domains instead of over relation. E.g. ILL, DEDUCE.
41. What is normalization?

It is a process of analysing the given relation schemas based on their Functional
Dependencies (FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
Ø Minimizing redundancy
Ø Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.
42. What is Functional Dependency?

A Functional dependency is denoted by X Y between two sets of attributes X and Y that are
subsets of R specifies a constraint on the possible tuple that can form a relation state r of R.
The constraint is for any two tuples t1 and t2 in r if t1[X] = t2[X] then they have t1[Y] =
t2[Y]. This means the value of X component of a tuple uniquely determines the value of
component Y.
43. When is a functional dependency F said to be minimal?

Ø Every dependency in F has a single attribute for its right hand side.
Ø We cannot replace any dependency X A in F with a dependency Y A where Y is a proper
subset of X and still have a set of dependency that is equivalent to F.
Ø We cannot remove any dependency from F and still have set of dependency that is
equivalent to F.
44. What is Multivalued dependency?

Multivalued dependency denoted by X Y specified on relation schema R, where X and Y are
both subsets of R, specifies the following constraint on any relation r of R: if two tuples t1
and t2 exist in r such that t1[X] = t2[X] then t3 and t4 should also exist in r with the
following properties
Ø t3[x] = t4[X] = t1[X] = t2[X]
Ø t3[Y] = t1[Y] and t4[Y] = t2[Y]
Ø t3[Z] = t2[Z] and t4[Z] = t1[Z]
where [Z = (R-(X U Y)) ]
45. What is Lossless join property?
It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to relation
schemas after decomposition.
46. What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?

The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.
47. What is Fully Functional dependency?

It is based on concept of full functional dependency. A functional dependency X Y is full
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functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means that the dependency does
not hold any more.
48. What is 2NF?

A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is fully
functionally dependent on primary key.
49. What is 3NF?

A relation schema R is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for every FD X A either of the following is
true
Ø X is a Super-key of R.
Ø A is a prime attribute of R.
In other words, if every non prime attribute is non-transitively dependent on primary key.
50. What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?

A relation schema R is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and satisfies an additional constraint that for
every FD X A, X must be a candidate key.
51. What is 4NF?

A relation schema R is said to be in 4NF if for every Multivalued dependency X Y that holds
over R, one of following is true
Ø X is subset or equal to (or) XY = R.
Ø X is a super key.
52. What is 5NF?

A Relation schema R is said to be 5NF if for every join dependency {R1, R2, ..., Rn} that
holds R, one the following is true
Ø Ri = R for some i.
Ø The join dependency is implied by the set of FD, over R in which the left side is key of R.
53. What is Domain-Key Normal Form?
A relation is said to be in DKNF if all constraints and dependencies that should hold on the
the constraint can be enforced by simply enforcing the domain constraint and key constraint
on the relation.
54. What are partial, alternate,, artificial, compound and natural key?
Partial Key:
It is a set of attributes that can uniquely identify weak entities and that are related to same
owner entity. It is sometime called as Discriminator.
Alternate Key:
All Candidate Keys excluding the Primary Key are known as Alternate Keys.
Artificial Key:
If no obvious key, either stand alone or compound is available, then the last resort is to
simply create a key, by assigning a unique number to each record or occurrence. Then this is
known as developing an artificial key.
Compound Key:
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If no single data element uniquely identifies occurrences within a construct, then combining
multiple elements to create a unique identifier for the construct is known as creating a
compound key.
Natural Key:
When one of the data elements stored within a construct is utilized as the primary key, then it
is called the natural key.
55. What is indexing and what are the different kinds of indexing?
Indexing is a technique for determining how quickly specific data can be found.
Types:
Ø Binary search style indexing
Ø B-Tree indexing
Ø Inverted list indexing
Ø Memory resident table
Ø Table indexing
56. What is system catalog or catalog relation? How is better known as?
A RDBMS maintains a description of all the data that it contains, information about every
relation and index that it contains. This information is stored in a collection of relations
maintained by the system called metadata. It is also called data dictionary.
57. What is meant by query optimization?
The phase that identifies an efficient execution plan for evaluating a query that has the least
estimated cost is referred to as query optimization.
58. What is join dependency and inclusion dependency?

Join Dependency:
A Join dependency is generalization of Multivalued dependency.A JD {R1, R2, ..., Rn} is
said to hold over a relation R if R1, R2, R3, ..., Rn is a lossless-join decomposition of R .
There is no set of sound and complete inference rules for JD.
Inclusion Dependency:
An Inclusion Dependency is a statement of the form that some columns of a relation are
contained in other columns. A foreign key constraint is an example of inclusion dependency.
59. What is durability in DBMS?

Once the DBMS informs the user that a transaction has successfully completed, its effects
should persist even if the system crashes before all its changes are reflected on disk. This
property is called durability.
60. What do you mean by atomicity and aggregation?

Atomicity:
Either all actions are carried out or none are. Users should not have to worry about the effect
of incomplete transactions. DBMS ensures this by undoing the actions of incomplete
transactions.
Aggregation:
A concept which is used to model a relationship between a collection of entities and
relationships. It is used when we need to express a relationship among relationships.
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61. What is a Phantom Deadlock?
In distributed deadlock detection, the delay in propagating local information might cause the
deadlock detection algorithms to identify deadlocks that do not really exist. Such situations
are called phantom deadlocks and they lead to unnecessary aborts.
62. What is a checkpoint and When does it occur?

A Checkpoint is like a snapshot of the DBMS state. By taking checkpoints, the DBMS can
reduce the amount of work to be done during restart in the event of subsequent crashes.
63. What are the different phases of transaction?
Different phases are
Ø Analysis phase
Ø Redo Phase
Ø Undo phase
64. What do you mean by flat file database?

It is a database in which there are no programs or user access languages. It has no cross-file
capabilities but is user-friendly and provides user-interface management.
65. What is "transparent DBMS"?

It is one, which keeps its Physical Structure hidden from user.
66. Brief theory of Network, Hierarchical schemas and their properties

Network schema uses a graph data structure to organize records example for such a database
management system is CTCG while a hierarchical schema uses a tree data structure example
for such a system is IMS.
67. What is a query?

A query with respect to DBMS relates to user commands that are used to interact with a data
base. The query language can be classified into data definition language and data
manipulation language.
68. What do you mean by Correlated subquery?

Subqueries, or nested queries, are used to bring back a set of rows to be used by the parent
query. Depending on how the subquery is written, it can be executed once for the parent
query or it can be executed once for each row returned by the parent query. If the subquery is
executed for each row of the parent, this is called a correlated subquery.
A correlated subquery can be easily identified if it contains any references to the parent
subquery columns in its WHERE clause. Columns from the subquery cannot be referenced
anywhere else in the parent query. The following example demonstrates a non-correlated
subquery.
E.g. Select * From CUST Where '10/03/1990' IN (Select ODATE From ORDER Where
CUST.CNUM = ORDER.CNUM)
69. What are the primitive operations common to all record management systems?
Addition, deletion and modification.
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70. Name the buffer in which all the commands that are typed in are stored
‘Edit’ Buffer
71. What are the unary operations in Relational Algebra?

PROJECTION and SELECTION.
72. Are the resulting relations of PRODUCT and JOIN operation the same?
No.
PRODUCT: Concatenation of every row in one relation with every row in another.
JOIN: Concatenation of rows from one relation and related rows from another.
73. What is RDBMS KERNEL?

Two important pieces of RDBMS architecture are the kernel, which is the software, and the
data dictionary, which consists of the system-level data structures used by the kernel to
manage the database
You might think of an RDBMS as an operating system (or set of subsystems), designed
specifically for controlling data access; its primary functions are storing, retrieving, and
securing data. An RDBMS maintains its own list of authorized users and their associated
privileges; manages memory caches and paging; controls locking for concurrent resource
usage; dispatches and schedules user requests; and manages space usage within its table-
space structures.
74. Name the sub-systems of a RDBMS

I/O, Security, Language Processing, Process Control, Storage Management, Logging and
Recovery, Distribution Control, Transaction Control, Memory Management, Lock
Management
75. Which part of the RDBMS takes care of the data dictionary? How
Data dictionary is a set of tables and database objects that is stored in a special area of the
database and maintained exclusively by the kernel.
76. What is the job of the information stored in data-dictionary?

The information in the data dictionary validates the existence of the objects, provides access
to them, and maps the actual physical storage location.
77. Not only RDBMS takes care of locating data it also

determines an optimal access path to store or retrieve the data
76. How do you communicate with an RDBMS?
You communicate with an RDBMS using Structured Query Language (SQL)
78. Define SQL and state the differences between SQL and other conventional
programming Languages
SQL is a nonprocedural language that is designed specifically for data access operations on
normalized relational database structures. The primary difference between SQL and other
conventional programming languages is that SQL statements specify what data operations
should be performed rather than how to perform them.
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79. Name the three major set of files on disk that compose a database in Oracle
There are three major sets of files on disk that compose a database. All the files are binary.
These are
Ø Database files
Ø Control files
Ø Redo logs
The most important of these are the database files where the actual data resides. The control
files and the redo logs support the functioning of the architecture itself.
All three sets of files must be present, open, and available to Oracle for any data on the
database to be useable. Without these files, you cannot access the database, and the database
administrator might have to recover some or all of the database using a backup, if there is
one.
80. What is an Oracle Instance?

The Oracle system processes, also known as Oracle background processes, provide functions
for the user processes—functions that would otherwise be done by the user processes
themselves
Oracle database-wide system memory is known as the SGA, the system global area or shared
global area. The data and control structures in the SGA are shareable, and all the Oracle
background processes and user processes can use them.
The combination of the SGA and the Oracle background processes is known as an Oracle
instance
81. What are the four Oracle system processes that must always be up and running for
the database to be useable
The four Oracle system processes that must always be up and running for the database to be
useable include DBWR (Database Writer), LGWR (Log Writer), SMON (System Monitor),
and PMON (Process Monitor).
82. What are database files, control files and log files. How many of these files should a
database have at least? Why?
Database Files
The database files hold the actual data and are typically the largest in size. Depending on
their sizes, the tables (and other objects) for all the user accounts can go in one database file
—but that's not an ideal situation because it does not make the database structure very
flexible for controlling access to storage for different users, putting the database on different
disk drives, or backing up and restoring just part of the database.
You must have at least one database file but usually, more than one files are used. In terms of
accessing and using the data in the tables and other objects, the number (or location) of the
files is immaterial.
The database files are fixed in size and never grow bigger than the size at which they were
created Control Files
The control files and redo logs support the rest of the architecture. Any database must have at
least one control file, although you typically have more than one to guard against loss. The
control file records the name of the database, the date and time it was created, the location of
the database and redo logs, and the synchronization information to ensure that all three sets
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of files are always in step. Every time you add a new database or redo log file to the
database, the information is recorded in the control files.
Redo Logs
Any database must have at least two redo logs. These are the journals for the database; the
redo logs record all changes to the user objects or system objects. If any type of failure
occurs, the changes recorded in the redo logs can be used to bring the database to a consistent
state without losing any committed transactions. In the case of non-data loss failure, Oracle
can apply the information in the redo logs automatically without intervention from the DBA.
The redo log files are fixed in size and never grow dynamically from the size at which they
were created.
83. What is ROWID?

The ROWID is a unique database-wide physical address for every row on every table. Once
assigned (when the row is first inserted into the database), it never changes until the row is
deleted or the table is dropped.
The ROWID consists of the following three components, the combination of which uniquely
identifies the physical storage location of the row.
Ø Oracle database file number, which contains the block with the rows
Ø Oracle block address, which contains the row
Ø The row within the block (because each block can hold many rows)
The ROWID is used internally in indexes as a quick means of retrieving rows with a
particular key value. Application developers also use it in SQL statements as a quick way to
access a row once they know the ROWID
84. What is Oracle Block? Can two Oracle Blocks have the same address?
Oracle "formats" the database files into a number of Oracle blocks when they are first created
—making it easier for the RDBMS software to manage the files and easier to read data into
the memory areas.
The block size should be a multiple of the operating system block size. Regardless of the
block size, the entire block is not available for holding data; Oracle takes up some space to
manage the contents of the block. This block header has a minimum size, but it can grow.
These Oracle blocks are the smallest unit of storage. Increasing the Oracle block size can
improve performance, but it should be done only when the database is first created.
Each Oracle block is numbered sequentially for each database file starting at 1. Two blocks
can have the same block address if they are in different database files.
85. What is database Trigger?

A database trigger is a PL/SQL block that can defined to automatically execute for insert,
update, and delete statements against a table. The trigger can e defined to execute once for
the entire statement or once for every row that is inserted, updated, or deleted. For any one
table, there are twelve events for which you can define database triggers. A database trigger
can call database procedures that are also written in PL/SQL.
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86. Name two utilities that Oracle provides, which are use for backup and recovery.
Along with the RDBMS software, Oracle provides two utilities that you can use to back up
and restore the database. These utilities are Export and Import.
The Export utility dumps the definitions and data for the specified part of the database to an
operating system binary file. The Import utility reads the file produced by an export,
recreates the definitions of objects, and inserts the data
If Export and Import are used as a means of backing up and recovering the database, all the
changes made to the database cannot be recovered since the export was performed. The best
you can do is recover the database to the time when the export was last performed.
87. What are stored-procedures? And what are the advantages of using them.
Stored procedures are database objects that perform a user defined operation. A stored
procedure can have a set of compound SQL statements. A stored procedure executes the SQL
commands and returns the result to the client. Stored procedures are used to reduce network
traffic.
88. How are exceptions handled in PL/SQL? Give some of the internal exceptions' name
PL/SQL exception handling is a mechanism for dealing with run-time errors encountered
during procedure execution. Use of this mechanism enables execution to continue if the error
is not severe enough to cause procedure termination.
The exception handler must be defined within a subprogram specification. Errors cause the
program to raise an exception with a transfer of control to the exception-handler block. After
the exception handler executes, control returns to the block in which the handler was defined.
If there are no more executable statements in the block, control returns to the caller.
User-Defined Exceptions
PL/SQL enables the user to define exception handlers in the declarations area of subprogram
specifications. User accomplishes this by naming an exception as in the following example:
ot_failure EXCEPTION;
In this case, the exception name is ot_failure. Code associated with this handler is written in
the EXCEPTION specification area as follows:
EXCEPTION
when OT_FAILURE then
out_status_code := g_out_status_code;
out_msg := g_out_msg;
The following is an example of a subprogram exception:
EXCEPTION
when NO_DATA_FOUND then
g_out_status_code := 'FAIL';
RAISE ot_failure;
Within this exception is the RAISE statement that transfers control back to the ot_failure
exception handler. This technique of raising the exception is used to invoke all user-defined
exceptions.
System-Defined Exceptions
Exceptions internal to PL/SQL are raised automatically upon error. NO_DATA_FOUND is a
system-defined exception. Table below gives a complete list of internal exceptions.
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PL/SQL internal exceptions.
PL/SQL internal exceptions.
Exception Name Oracle Error

CURSOR_ALREADY_OPEN ORA-06511
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX ORA-00001
INVALID_CURSOR ORA-01001
INVALID_NUMBER ORA-01722
LOGIN_DENIED ORA-01017
NO_DATA_FOUND ORA-01403
NOT_LOGGED_ON ORA-01012
PROGRAM_ERROR ORA-06501
STORAGE_ERROR ORA-06500
TIMEOUT_ON_RESOURCE ORA-00051
TOO_MANY_ROWS ORA-01422
TRANSACTION_BACKED_OUT ORA-00061
VALUE_ERROR ORA-06502
ZERO_DIVIDE ORA-01476
In addition to this list of exceptions, there is a catch-all exception named OTHERS that traps
all errors for which specific error handling has not been established.
89. Does PL/SQL support "overloading"? Explain

The concept of overloading in PL/SQL relates to the idea that you can define procedures and
functions with the same name. PL/SQL does not look only at the referenced name, however,
to resolve a procedure or function call. The count and data types of formal parameters are
also considered.
PL/SQL also attempts to resolve any procedure or function calls in locally defined packages
before looking at globally defined packages or internal functions. To further ensure calling
the proper procedure, you can use the dot notation. Prefacing a procedure or function name
with the package name fully qualifies any procedure or function reference.
90. Tables derived from the ERD

a) Are totally unnormalised
b) Are always in 1NF
c) Can be further denormalised
d) May have multi-valued attributes
(b) Are always in 1NF
91. Spurious tuples may occur due to

i. Bad normalization
ii. Theta joins
iii. Updating tables from join
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a) i & ii b) ii & iii
c) i & iii d) ii & iii
(a) i & iii because theta joins are joins made on keys that are not primary keys.
92. A B C is a set of attributes. The functional dependency is as follows

AB -> B
AC -> C
C -> B
a) is in 1NF
b) is in 2NF
c) is in 3NF
d) is in BCNF
(a) is in 1NF since (AC)+ = { A, B, C} hence AC is the primary key. Since C B is a FD

given, where neither C is a Key nor B is a prime attribute, this it is not in 3NF. Further B is
not functionally dependent on key AC thus it is not in 2NF. Thus the given FDs is in 1NF.
93. In mapping of ERD to DFD

a) entities in ERD should correspond to an existing entity/store in DFD
b) entity in DFD is converted to attributes of an entity in ERD
c) relations in ERD has 1 to 1 correspondence to processes in DFD
d) relationships in ERD has 1 to 1 correspondence to flows in DFD
(a) entities in ERD should correspond to an existing entity/store in DFD
94. A dominant entity is the entity

a) on the N side in a 1 : N relationship
b) on the 1 side in a 1 : N relationship
c) on either side in a 1 : 1 relationship
d) nothing to do with 1 : 1 or 1 : N relationship
(b) on the 1 side in a 1 : N relationship

95. Select 'NORTH', CUSTOMER From CUST_DTLS Where REGION = 'N' Order
By
CUSTOMER Union Select 'EAST', CUSTOMER From CUST_DTLS Where REGION
= 'E' Order By CUSTOMER
The above is
a) Not an error
b) Error - the string in single quotes 'NORTH' and 'SOUTH'
c) Error - the string should be in double quotes
d) Error - ORDER BY clause
(d) Error - the ORDER BY clause. Since ORDER BY clause cannot be used in UNIONS
96. What is Storage Manager?
74
It is a program module that provides the interface between the low-level data stored in
database, application programs and queries submitted to the system.
97. What is Buffer Manager?

It is a program module, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main
memory and deciding what data to be cache in memory.
98. What is Transaction Manager?

It is a program module, which ensures that database, remains in a consistent state despite
system failures and concurrent transaction execution proceeds without conflicting.
99. What is File Manager?

It is a program module, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and data
structure used to represent information stored on a disk.
100. What is Authorization and Integrity manager?

It is the program module, which tests for the satisfaction of integrity constraint and checks
the authority of user to access data.
101. What are stand-alone procedures?

Procedures that are not part of a package are known as stand-alone because they
independently defined. A good example of a stand-alone procedure is one written in a
SQL*Forms application. These types of procedures are not available for reference from other
Oracle tools. Another limitation of stand-alone procedures is that they are compiled at run
time, which slows execution.
102. What are cursors give different types of cursors.
PL/SQL uses cursors for all database information accesses statements. The language supports
the use two types of cursors
Ø Implicit
Ø Explicit
103. What is cold backup and hot backup (in case of Oracle)?
Ø Cold Backup:
It is copying the three sets of files (database files, redo logs, and control file) when the
instance is shut down. This is a straight file copy, usually from the disk directly to tape. You
must shut down the instance to guarantee a consistent copy.
If a cold backup is performed, the only option available in the event of data file loss is
restoring all the files from the latest backup. All work performed on the database since the
last backup is lost.
Ø Hot Backup:
Some sites (such as worldwide airline reservations systems) cannot shut down the database
while making a backup copy of the files. The cold backup is not an available option.
So different means of backing up database must be used — the hot backup. Issue a SQL
command to indicate to Oracle, on a tablespace-by-tablespace basis, that the files of the
tablespace are to backed up. The users can continue to make full use of the files, including
75
making changes to the data. Once the user has indicated that he/she wants to back up the
tablespace files, he/she can use the operating system to copy those files to the desired backup
destination.
The database must be running in ARCHIVELOG mode for the hot backup option.
If a data loss failure does occur, the lost database files can be restored using the hot backup
and the online and offline redo logs created since the backup was done. The database is
restored to the most consistent state without any loss of committed transactions.
104. What are Armstrong rules? How do we say that they are complete and/or sound
The well-known inference rules for FDs
Ø Reflexive rule :
If Y is subset or equal to X then X Y.
Ø Augmentation rule:
If X Y then XZ YZ.
Ø Transitive rule:
If {X Y, Y Z} then X Z.
Ø Decomposition rule :
If X YZ then X Y.
Ø Union or Additive rule:
If {X Y, X Z} then X YZ.
Ø Pseudo Transitive rule :
If {X Y, WY Z} then WX Z.
Of these the first three are known as Amstrong Rules. They are sound because it is enough if
a set of FDs satisfy these three. They are called complete because using these three rules we
can generate the rest all inference rules.
105. How can you find the minimal key of relational schema?
Minimal key is one which can identify each tuple of the given relation schema uniquely. For
finding the minimal key it is required to find the closure that is the set of all attributes that are
dependent on any given set of attributes under the given set of functional dependency.
Algo. I Determining X+, closure for X, given set of FDs F
1. Set X+ = X
2. Set Old X+ = X+
3. For each FD Y Z in F and if Y belongs to X+ then add Z to X+
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 until Old X+ = X+
Algo.II Determining minimal K for relation schema R, given set of FDs F

1. Set K to R that is make K a set of all attributes in R
2. For each attribute A in K
a. Compute (K – A)+ with respect to F
b. If (K – A)+ = R then set K = (K – A)+
106. What do you understand by dependency preservation?

Given a relation R and a set of FDs F, dependency preservation states that the closure of the
union of the projection of F on each decomposed relation Ri is equal to the closure of F. i.e.,
((PR1(F)) U … U (PRn(F)))+ = F+
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if decomposition is not dependency preserving, then some dependency is lost in the
decomposition.
107. What is meant by Proactive, Retroactive and Simultaneous Update.
Proactive Update:
The updates that are applied to database before it becomes effective in real world .
Retroactive Update:
The updates that are applied to database after it becomes effective in real world .
Simulatneous Update:
The updates that are applied to database at the same time when it becomes effective in real
world .
108. What are the different types of JOIN operations?

Equi Join: This is the most common type of join which involves only equality comparisions.
The disadvantage in this type of join is that there
77

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DATABASE SYSTEMS

DDL is Data Definition Language statements. Some examples:

1. SQL - CREATE TABLE

EName VarChar(15), Job Char(10) CONSTRAINT Unik1 UNIQUE,

Mgr short CONSTRAINT FKey1 REFERENCES EMP (EmpNo),

Hiredate Date, DeptNo short CONSTRAINT FKey2 REFERENCES DEPT(DeptNo));

RESULT: Table created.

Name Null? Type

--------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------

PNAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20)

DOJ NOT NULL DATE

DOB NOT NULL DATE

SEX NOT NULL VARCHAR2(1)

SALARY NOT NULL NUMBER(7,2)

SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP ADD CONSTRAINT Pkey1 PRIMARY KEY (EmpNo);

RESULT: Table Altered.

Similarly, ALTER TABLE EMP DROP CONSTRAINT Pkey1;

3. SQL - DROP TABLE

SQL> DROP TABLE EMP; Here EMP is table name

RESULT: Table Dropped.

4. TRUNCATE TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLE NAME>;

Basic SQL DML Commands.

1. SQL - INSERT INTO

INSERT INTO S VALUES(‘S3’,’SUP3’,’BLORE’,10)

 Inserting one row, many columns at a time

INSERT INTO S (SNO, SNAME) VALUES (‘S1’, ‘Smith’);S1’ Smith’

 Inserting many rows, all/some columns at a time.

INSERT INTO NEW_SUPPLIER (SNO, SNAME)

SELECT SNO, SNAME FROM S

WHERE CITY IN (‘BLORE’,’MADRAS’)

SQL>Insert into prog values (‘kkk’,’05-may-56’);

RESULT: 1 row created.

SQL>Insert into prog20 values(‘Hema’,’25-sept-01’28-jan-85’,’f’,’c’,’c++’,’25000’);

RESULT: 1 row created.

SQL>Insert into prog values(‘&pname’,’&doj’);

SQL> Insert into prog values('&pname','&doj');

Enter value for pname: ravi

Enter value for doj: 15-june-81

old 1: Insert into prog values('&pname','&doj')

new 1: Insert into prog values('ravi','15-june-81')

UPDATE S SET CITY = ‘KANPUR’ WHERE SNO=‘S1’

UPDATE EMP SET SAL = 1.10 * SAL

SQL> update emp set sal=20000 where empno=7369;

SQL>Delete from emp where empno=7369;

RESULT: 1 row deleted.

Basic SQL DCL Commands.

COMMIT [WORK] [COMMENT 'comment_text']

FORCE - will manually commit an in-doubt distributed transaction

RESULT: Commit complete.

ROLLBACK [WORK] [FORCE 'force_text'];

FORCE - will manually rollback an in-doubt distributed transaction

SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees;

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT justsmith;

1. Get the description of EMP table.

2. Get the description DEPT table.

3.List all employee details.

SQL>select * from emp;

6. List all employees which starts with either J or T.