E 

Basics of thermal mass flow control

Technology Update

Basic thermal mass flow control technology is utilized wherever the precise delivery of
gas is required in semiconductor and other industrial or analytical applications.

Figure 1. A partial cutaway of a mass flow controller

introduction
Mass flow controllers (MFCs) are used wherever accurate measurement and control of gas is required.To
help understand how an MFC functions, it can be separated into two main components: a mass flow
meter (MFM) and a proportioning controller (Figure 1).The mass flow meter divides the flow between a
heated sensing tube, where the mass flow is actually measured, and a flow restriction or bypass, where the
majority of gas passes.The flow meter electronics amplify the sensor signal and condition the output.The
other main component, the proportioning controller, consists of a variable displacement solenoid valve
and the control electronics.The controller drives the valve to the correct position so that the measured
flow equals the desired flow setpoint.

the mass flow meter

Mass flow meters use the thermal properties of a gas to directly measure the mass flow rate.The MFM
uses the basic principle that each gas molecule has a specific ability to pick up heat.This property, called
the “specific heat” (CP), directly relates to the mass and physical structure of the molecule and can be
determined experimentally.The specific heat is well known for many gases and is generally insensitive to
changes in temperature or pressure.
By adding heat to a gas and monitoring the change in temperature, the mass flow rate can be deter-
mined.To illustrate this concept, take the case of cool gas flowing through a heated tube. (Figure 2.)
Mathematically, the heat loss can be described by the First Law of Thermodynamics,

q = ṁ CP ∆T

˙
where q is the heat lost to the gas flow, m is the mass flow, CP is the specific heat for a constant pressure,
and ∆T is the net change in gas temperature as it traverses the tube. It is important to realize that both
the specific heat and the flow rate determine the amplitude of the heat flux.As the mass and physical
structure of molecules vary widely from gas to gas, so does the specific heat. For the same molar flow
rate, the heat flux can differ significantly for different gases. If this heat flux is monitored, the amplitude
can be converted into an electrical signal. Given that the specific heat is known for the gas, then the mass
flow rate can be determined directly from the electrical signal.

m m
T0 T1

One continuous heater

q
Figure 2. Mass flow through a heated tube. As the gas, ṁ, flows through the tube
Constant heat
with a heat flux q, the gas temperature is raised from T0 to T1 .

the sensor
To maximize the performance and versatility of the sensor, the majority of gas is shunted through the
bypass.A small portion of the flow is split off before entering the bypass region and directed into the
sensor.The percentage of the mass flow through the sensor relative to the mass flow through the bypass is
essentially constant for the operational range of the device. Since the flow measured by the sensor is
directly proportional to the total flow, only a small portion of the flow is actually measured, but the total
flow is accurately determined.

Flow

Temperature

No flow

T0
∆T Flow
T1
RTD2
RTD1
Figure 3. Temperature profile of a thermal sensor. At zero flow condi-
tions the temperature gradient is symmetric about the midpoint of the
0 L/2 L
tube. As flow increases the curve shifts downstream. The difference

Tube length between the two RTDs, ∆T, corresponds to mass flow rate.

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The sensor is a long, thin stainless tube, often called a capillary tube because of its shape.At the midpoint
of the capillary tube, two wire coils are wrapped side by side (Figure3).The windings serve two func-
tions: first as heaters, and second as temperature sensors.The MFM electronics provide a constant current
source to the coils, which is converted to heat by the resistance of the wire. Since the resistance of the
coils varies with temperature, the coils also function as resistance temperature detectors, or RTDs, which
measure the temperature of the gas.
When there is no gas flow, heat from the coils generates a uniform temperature gradient about the
midpoint of the tube. However, as gas flows through the sensor, heat is picked up from the upstream
heater and is carried towards the down-stream heater.This movement of heat by the gas shifts the
temperature gradient so that a temperature difference develops between the two heaters.
This can be seen in the graph in Figure 3. Since both coils initially generate the same amount of heat,
when gas flows through the sensor the upstream coil will cool as heat is absorbed by the cool gas.When
the gas stream gets to the downstream coil, the gas temperature has been raised significantly, so the
downstream coil cools only slightly.Assuming all other heat losses for the coils are the same, the net
difference in heat lost between the coils can be linearly correlated to the mass flow rate.

0-5 Vdc
output

Linearization

Amplifier
Instrument
electronics

Wheatstone
bridge

Sensor

Figure 4. Sensor schematic. Changes in sensor coil resistance are fed into
Flow a Wheatstone bridge and then amplified, linearized, and calibrated to
Bypass generate the 0-5 VDC signal.

the mass flow electronics

The electronics in the MFM convert the temperature difference between the two coils into 0-5 VDC
output.The coils are the two resistive legs in a Wheatstone bridge circuit (Figure 4). Small changes in
temperature correspond directly to changes in resistance.When there is no gas flow through the sensor,
the legs are balanced to read zero volts.As the flow increases, the temperature difference between the
RTDs increases, therefore, the difference in resistance increases.The bridge circuitry amplifies this
difference and the output is linearized and calibrated for the gas type and flow range.The signal is then
amplified to a 0-5 VDC output that corresponds to the mass flow rate from the MFM or MFC.

fluid mechanics of the sensor and bypass

Unit MFMs and MFCs have been designed to provide fully developed laminar flow within the sensor
and the bypass. In fully developed flow the velocity profile is constant (Figure 5). Laminar flow is smooth
and parallel, so that the behavior of the fluid can be readily determined. Unless the flow is fully devel-
oped, temperature measurements along the tube will not be consistent. In addition, the flow must be
laminar to allow matching between the sensor and the bypass throughout the entire flow range.

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Potential core Fully developed flow

Figure 5. Fully developed laminar flow in a tube

new IsoSensor™
Celerity pioneered sensor technology with a new patented mini-sensor design, the IsoSensor.
CrossFlow mounted mini sensors, when utilized in vertical and horizontal mounting attitudes, effectively
eliminate thermal siphoning effects in all mass flow controller (MFC) mounting attitudes. In addition,
when mounted perpendicular to the bypass they also reduce the zero offset problems typical in vertically
mounted MFCs utilizing older sensor technologies. Processes using dense gases will benefit with more
accurate flows and less sensitivity to inlet pressures.

IsoSensor in horizontal and vertical mounting attitudes

This IsoSensor features a smaller bore sensor tube which effectively decreases attitude effects inherent in
older sensor designs.The sensor has a thin tube wall which also increases its sensing ability and has short
vertical legs for better mechanical stability and low pressure sensitivity.

IsoSensor in 3D view showing interior parts

Improved thermal grounding and symmetry has been achieved in the design for increased stability and
faster warm-up times.The addition of a stable-resistant insulation makes it less sensitive to shock and
vibrations that may be encountered by the MFC.

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the bypass
Since the sensor can only sample a small amount of flow, the bypass sets the full-scale range of the MFM.
Acting as a restrictive element, the bypass is composed of a variable number of capillary tubes.The
number of capillary tubes in the bypass adjusts the flow splitting ratio, the mass flow through the sensor
relative to the mass flow through the bypass.This allows the same sensor to measure the mass flow rate
over a wide range of flow rates.
By designing both the sensor tube and the bypass to be laminar throughout the flow range, the split ratio
stays relatively constant.Any nonlinearities are then removed by linearization circuitry in the electronics.
This allows the MFM to perform with the same high degree of accuracy regardless of whether the flow
rate set point is at ten percent or one hundred percent of full scale.

the proportioning controller

A mass flow controller (MFC) is made up of a mass flow meter and a closely coupled proportioning
controller.The electronics for both components reside on the same circuit board.The desired flow rate
is communicated to the MFC as an analog set point voltage. In an MFC, the difference between the
output voltage from the flow meter and the set point voltage is used to drive the control valve.The
voltage difference is determined by a high gain comparator circuit. Depending on the output of the
comparator, the control valve will proportionally open or close until the output voltage is equal to the
setpoint voltage.
Celerity has made several patented advances for Proportional Integral Differential (PID) control of Unit
MFCs. One of the most significant is the matched circuitry between the electronics and the sensor. Each
circuit board is paired to a sensor before being mounted on a flow base.The matched set is computer
tuned and tested. An inverse function is generated for the sensor which eliminates the thermal time lag
to changes in flow.
This tuning improves the response time a minimum of one hundred fold and insures that the response
characteristics are the same for every MFC.
One common drawback for PID algorithms is that the capacitive integral term can be slow to charge
up, causing the control valve to delay opening. For low set points the delay can be seconds.To overcome
this problem, a patented precharge circuit has been added to the control circuitry. Since the valve voltage
is a function of the percentage of flow through the valve, this voltage can be redetermined and sent to
the valve before the MFC is turned on. As soon as the MFC is turned on, the valve goes to the predeter-
mined voltage.The PID algorithm then drives the valve to its final location.The result is much faster
response time without overshoot, regardless of setpoint. Unit MFCs have been designed with internal
voltage regulation so that the accuracy of the device does not depend on the power supply output.
Before any MFC is assembled, the sensor and matched circuit board are temperature compensated.The
accuracy of the MFC is insensitive to changes in room temperature. By designing the electronics with
internal voltage regulation, high performance components, and state of the art control circuitry, the flow
controller response is fast and repeatable. Over a wide range of flows and operating conditions the MFC
provides zero overshoot and stable control regardless of temperature, pressure or vibration.

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the control valve
The Unit control valve is similar in form to a solenoid valve (Figure 6). However, the valve is a propor-
tioning valve with almost infinite resolution.The major components of the valve include the plunger
assembly, the valve jet and the valve core.The plunger assembly consists of the plunger, the valve seat and
two flat springs.The valve seat is attached to the end of the plunger and covers the orifice in the jet.
Depending on the environment, the seat can be either Viton,Teflon®, neoprene, or metal.The plunger is
supported by two flat springs which supply frictionless motion.When the MFC is given a shut-off
command, the valve seat seals against the jet. For the MFC to allow flow, the shut-off command is turned
off.The valve current is increased, the plunger overcomes the spring force, lifts off the jet, and allows
flow through the orifice.The orifice in the jet is sized so that voltage necessary to drive the plunger
assembly is similar for each MFC. One unique advantage of this valve is that the plunger is external to
the magnetic core.Wear from misalignment of the plunger and the core is prevented, so the reliability
of the MFC is increased and particulate generation is eliminated. Dead space, which can be a source of
contamination, is also reduced since flow does not enter the core.

Core
Coil

Pole housing Pole spacer

Seat
Plunger & spring assembly Jet
Orifice

Figure 6. MFC cutaway. Flow through the valve is controlled by

Block with flow path the plunger assembly. As the assembly rises, the seat lifts off the
jet and allows controlled flow through the orifice.

summary
A Celerity’s Unit mass flow controllers use thermal sensing techniques, proper mechanical design, and
advanced electronics to deliver an extremely accurate, responsive, linear, and dependable control of gas
flow.The sensor and circuit board are tuned and temperature compensated for optimal performance.
The control valve is designed for maximum response with zero overshoot and reduced dead space.These
are some of the features that make Unit brand mass flow meters and mass flow controllers the industry
standard.

c e l e r i t y g ro u p, i n c .
    For technical assistance, contact Celerity Applications Engineering at 714.921.2640.
 ,  
Celerity, Unit, and IsoSensor are trademarks of Celerity Group, Inc.All other product or service
 .. names mentioned in this document may be trademarks of the companies with which they are
 .. associated. System descriptions are typical and subject to change without notice.
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©2002 Celerity Group, Inc. TKS-002-0001 REVC 4/02