Unit I

Module 2: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Objectives

The main objectives of the this chapter are to acquaint the students about :

i) the prokaryotic cells and its structures; and

ii) the eukaryotes and the main characteristics of eukaryotic cells.

Introduction

There are two major types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic based on their complexity.
The general characteristic features of the two groups are:

Prokaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria, archaea and cynobacteria (blue-green algae) and
eukaryotic cells include all other cells, such as protista, fungal, plant and animal cells. The
structures of typical prokaryotic cells are described in more detail as :

1. Common Cell Morphologies and Arrangements: Cell morphologies commonly

found in prokaryotic cells are Coccus (pl. cocci) or round, Bacillus (plural: bacilli) or
rod, Vibrio (plural vibrios) or curved rod, Coccobacillus (plural coccobacilli) or short
rod, Spirillum (plural spirilla) or spiral, Spirochete (plural spirochetes) or long, loose,
helical spiral, etc. In addition to cellular shape, prokaryotic cells may group together
in certain arrangements like Coccus (pl. cocci) or single coccus, Diplococcus (pl.
diplococci) or pair of two cocci, Tetrad (pl. tetrads) or grouping of four cells arranged
in a square, Streptococcus (pl. streptococci) or chain of cocci, Staphylococcus (pl.
staphylococci) or cluster of cocci, Bacillus (pl. bacilli) or single rod, Streptobacillus
(pl. streptobacilli) or a chain of rods.

2. Structures external to the cell wall

i. Glycocalyx: The glycocalyx (capsule, slime layer, or extra cellular

polysaccharide) is a gelatinous polysaccharide and/or polypeptide covering lying
externally to the cell wall. The exact chemical composition varies depending on
the species. Capsules may protect pathogens from phagocytosis and enable
adherence to surfaces, prevent desiccation, and may provide nutrients.

ii. Flagella: Flagella are long filamentous appendages consisting of a filament,

hook, and basal body and help to push the cell by rotating. The filament is
composed of the globular protein flagellin, which is arranged in several
intertwined chains that form a helix around a hollow core. Motile bacteria move
 by taxis in two ways: positive taxis or movement towards an attractant and
negative taxis or movement away from a repellent.

iii. Axial Filaments: Axial filaments are similar to flagella, except that they wrap
around the cell and spiral cells that move by means of an axial filament
(endoflagellum) are called spirochetes.

iv. Fimbriae and Pili: Fimbriae and pili are short, thin appendages. Fimbriae are
usually many and help the cells adhere to surfaces while pili are only one or two
per cells and help join cells during conjugation for the transfer of DNA (sex pili)
or are used for special types of movement like twitching in Pseudomonas
aeurginosa, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and some strains of E. coli, or the gliding
movement of myxobacteria.

3. Cell wall: Prokaryotic cell walls are composed of peptidoglycan in bacteria

or pseudopeptidoglycan in archaea. Cell wall in gram-positive bacteria are
characterized by a thick peptidoglycan layer, whereas in gram-negative bacterial cells,
the cell walls are characterized by a thin peptidoglycan layer surrounded by an outer
membrane.

4. Structures Internal To The Cell Wall

i. The Plasma (Cytoplasmic) Membrane: The bacterial plasma membrane is a

phospholipid bilayer with peripheral and integral proteins while the archaeal
membranes are composed of fatty acids that are ether-linked to phospholipids.
The plasma membrane of some prokaryotes contains infoldings called
chromatophores that contain pigments involved in photosynthesis. The plasma
membrane may also form irregular infoldings called mesosomes that functions
either in DNA replication and cell division or excretion of exoenzymes. The
plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and is selectively permeable.
Movement across the membrane may be by passive processes like diffusion and
osmosis or by active transport.

ii. Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is the fluid component of the cell surrounded by the
plasma membrane. The cytoplasm is composed mostly of water along with
inorganic and organic molecules, DNA, ribosomes, and inclusions.

iii. The Nucleoid: Prokaryotic DNA and DNA-associated proteins are not bound
by a complex nuclear membrane and occur as the nucleoid region in the
cytoplasm of the cell. Prokaryotic chromosomes are typically circular and
haploid (unpaired). In bacteria, Nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs) interacts
with   prokaryotic DNA and function like histones of eukaryotic cells assisting
in the organization and packaging of the chromosome. However, in archaea,
either NAPs or histone-like DNA organizing proteins associate with the
chromosomal DNA to organize the nucleoid.

iv. Plasmids: Prokaryotic cells may also contain small, circular, double-stranded
extrachromosomal DNA molecules called plasmids. Plasmids are generally
 many in number per cell and often carry genes that confer advantageous traits
such as antibiotic resistance.

v. Ribosomes: The cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cells contains numerous ribosomes

of the type 70S. Ribosomes are made up of rRNA and proteins and serve as the
site for protein synthesis.

vi. Inclusions: Inclusions are reserve deposits found in the cells and some
examples of prokaryotic cell inclusions found in bacteria are metachromatic
granules (inorganic phosphate), polysaccharide granules (usually glycogen or
starch), lipid inclusions, sulfur granules, carboxysomes (ribulose 1,5-
diphosphate carboxylase), magnetosomes (Fe3O4 or magnetite), and gas
vacuoles.

vii. Endospores: Endospores are resting structures formed by some bacteria like
Bacillus and Clostridium during unfavourable environmental conditions. The
process of endospore formation is called sporulation and the endospore return to its
vegetative state by a process called germination. 

viii. Sociability: although prokaryotes are unicellular, most of them can form stable
aggregated communities in a polymer matrix called “biofilms”. Cells in biofilms
often show distinct patterns of gene expression (phenotypic differentiation) in time
and space. Bacterial biofilms are more resistant to antibiotics compared to the single
bacterial cells and are difficult to remove from the surfaces of their colonization.

ix. Social environment: Prokaryotes can inhabit nearly all environments. Some archaea
and bacteria can even thrive in extreme conditions, such as high temperatures
(thermophiles) or high salinity (halophiles) and such organisms are referred to as
extremophiles. Some prokaryotes live in or on the bodies of other organisms as
symbiotic prokaryotes while many archaea grow as plankton in the oceans.

x. Reproduction: Bacteria and archaea reproduce through is an asexual mode of

reproduction reproduction known as binary fission. During binary fission, the
genomic DNA undergoes replication followed by division site selection,
invagination of the cell envelope and synthesis of new cell wall resulting in the
division of the original cell into two identical cells.

Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes include all species of large complex organisms including animals, plants and
fungi and most species of protist microorganisms. Eukaryotes are differentiated from the
prokaryotes mainly by their genome enclosed in the nucleus surrounded by the nuclear
membrane and the presence of other membrane bound organelles. Compared to prokaryotes,
eukaryotes represent a tiny minority of all living things and eukaryotic cells generally have a
smaller surface area to volume ratio than prokaryotes, and thus have lower metabolic rates
and longer generation times except in some cells specialized for metabolism such as intestinal
vili. The main characteristics of eukaryotic cells are:
1. Cell features: Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells and vary greatly in
their morphology. They have a variety of internal membranes and structures, called
organelles, and a cytoskeleton composed of microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments, which help in maintaining the cell's organization and shape.
2. The Cell Wall and Glycocalyx: Cells of fungi, algae, plants, and some protists have
a cell wall, whereas cells of animals and some protozoans have a sticky extracellular
matrix or glycocalyx. The cell walls of plants, many algae and some fungi are made
of cellulose while most fungal cell wall contain chitin.
3. The Plasma Membrane: The plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells is a phospholipid
bilayer containing proteins like the prokaryotic membrane. However, eukaryotic
membranes differ from prokaryotes in containing carbohydrates attached to the
proteins and sterols sterols as well as glycoproteins and glycolipids. Movement of
materials across the plasma membrane occurs by passive and active processes as in
prokaryotes. However, in addition to active processes, eukaryotic cell membranes can
take material into the cell via endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis), or expel
matter from the cell via exocytosis.
4. Flagella and cilia: Eukaryotic cells may contain flagella and cilia for locomotion
feeding, or movement of extracellular particles.
5. Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells includes everything inside the plasma
membrane and excluding the nucleus. Chemically, the cytoplasms of eukaryotic cells
resemble those of the prokaryotic cells. However, eukaryotic cytoplasm has a
cytoskeleton and exhibits cytoplasmic streaming.
6. Ribosomes: Eukaryotic cells contain two types of ribosomes. 80S ribosomes are
present in the rough endoplasmic reticulum as membrane bound-ribosomes and in the
cytoplasm as free ribosomes while the 70s ribosomes are present in mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
7. Nucleus: the nucleus contains DNA in the form of chromosomes surrounded by a
nuclear envelope which is connected to a system of membranes in the cytoplasm
called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The nucleolus is located inside the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells and serves as the site of ribosomal synthesis and the site for the first
stages of ribosome assembly.
8. Cytoskeleton: cytoskeletons are composed of microfilaments, intermediate
filaments, and microtubules. They provide structural support in eukaryotic cells and
serves as a network for transport of intracellular materials.
9. Centrosomes: The centrosome consists of the pericentriolar area and centrioles.
These are microtubule-organizing centres that take part in the formation of the spindle
apparatus during cell division.
10. Organelles: Eukaryote cells contain a variety of specialized membrane-bound
structures called as the endomembrane system or organelles. The organelles present
in eukaryotic cells are vesicles, the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, plastids and
the Golgi apparatus.
11. Reproduction:, sexual reproduction in most eukaryotes involves an alternation
between haploid and diploid generations occurring through nuclear fusion (syngamy)
and meiosis. Nuclear division is often coordinated with cell division and takes place
by mitosis.
12. Cell association/hierarchy: In the plant and animal kingdom cells associate to form
tissue, tissue to organs, organs to organ systems which finally makes the whole
organism.
Thus, the major differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells may be summarized as:
1. The size of prokaryotic cell range from 0.2-5.0 µm in diameter while that of
eukaryotic cells range from 10-40 µm in diameter.
2. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nuclear membrane and the nuclear material consisting
of a single chromosome and lies in the cytoplasm and is called nucleoid. Eukaryotic
cells, on the other hand, have a distinct nucleus bound by a nuclear envelope.
3. Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles while eukaryotic cells contain
membrane-bound organelles like lysosomes, Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria & chloroplasts, etc. in their cytoplasm.
4. Flagella in prokaryote consist of two protein building blocks while flagella, if present,
in eukaryotes are complex consisting of multiple microtubules.
5. Prokaryotes possess glycocalyx as a capsule or slime layer while it is present in only
in some cells that lack a cell wall.
6. Cell wall is usually present present in prokaryotes and is chemically complex (e.g.,
peptidoglycan of typical bacterial cell wall). Eukaryotes lack cell wall commonly and,
if present, are chemically simple.
7. The plasma membrane in prokaryotes do not contain carbohydrates and generally
lacks sterols while that of eukaryotes contain carbohydrates and generally lacks
sterols that serve as receptors.
8. The cytoplasm in prokaryotes does not contain cytosketeton or cytoplasmic streaming
while it is present in eukaryotic cells.
9. Prokaryotic cells contain smaller Ribosomes (70S) while eukaryotic cells contain
small (70S) in organelles and larger (80S) in then cytoplasm.
10. The DNA in prokaryotes is arranged as a single circular chromosome and lacks
histone proteins while it is present as multiple linear chromosomes associated with
histones in eukaryotes.
11. Cell division in prokaryotes is generally by binary fission while it occurs by mitosis in
eukaryotes.
12. Sexual reproduction in prokaryotes does not involve meiosis and DNA transfer
occurs through conjugation while sexual reproduction in eukaryotes involves meiosis.

Conclusion

Prokaryotes are mostly unicellular cells with simpler cellular organization and they live in
nearly all environments including extreme conditions while the eukaryotic cells are mostly
multicellular and much more complex compared to those of prokaryotes. Unlike the
prokaryotes, the eukaryotes cells contain many subcellular structures that play important roles
in energy balance, metabolism, and gene expression.

Glossary

1. Cell wall: Rigid extracellular matrix covering plasma membrane in prokaryotes and

plant cells.
2. Cell : The fundamental unit of life.
 3. Cytoplasm : The jelly-like matrix of the cell bound by the cell membrane.  It consists
of the cytosol (cell liquid) and the organelles including the nucleus and other cellular
components.
4. Cytoskeleton : A network of structural proteins which supports the cell and facilitates
movement of components within it.
5. Endoplasmic reticulum: A three dimensional, complicated and interconnected
system of membrane-lined channels that runs through the cytoplasm.
6. Glycocalyx: Covered carbohydrate-rich outer surface of the plasma membrane of
eukaryotic cells made up of glycolipids, oligosaccharide and absorbed peripheral
membrane proteins.
7. Golgi apparatus: A netlike mass of material in the cytoplasm of animal cells,
believed to function in cellular secretion.
8. Lysosome: Cytoplasmic organelle which degrades endocytosed extracellular
materials. It is also responsible of autophagy of intracellular materials.
9. Metabolism : The sum total of all of the chemical reactions which occur within
the cell.
10. Mitochondria: Energy producing organelle of cell (“Power House” of cell). It is a
double membrane bound organelle.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What are prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? What is the main difference between

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Ans: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are two major types of cells grouped based on their
complexcity. Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria, archaea and cynobacteria (blue-green
algae) and eukaryotic cells include all other cells, such as protista, fungal, plant and animal
cells. The main difference in the structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes is the presence of
membrane bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles like lysosomes, Golgi
complex, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria & chloroplasts, etc. in their cytoplasm in
eukaryotic cells that are absent in prokaryotic cells. In addition to the lack of organelles,
prokaryotic cells also lack a cytoskeleton.

2. Describe the types of variation in cell morphology and shape found in prokaryotic cells.

Ans: Cell morphologies commonly found in prokaryotic cells are Coccus (pl. cocci) or round,
Bacillus (plural: bacilli) or rod, Vibrio (plural vibrios) or curved rod, Coccobacillus (plural
coccobacilli) or short rod, Spirillum (plural spirilla) or spiral, Spirochete (plural spirochetes)
or long, loose, helical spiral, etc. In addition to cellular shape, prokaryotic cells may group
together in certain arrangements like Coccus (pl. cocci) or single coccus, Diplococcus (pl.
diplococci) or pair of two cocci, Tetrad (pl. tetrads) or grouping of four cells arranged in a
square, Streptococcus (pl. streptococci) or chain of cocci, Staphylococcus (pl. staphylococci)
or cluster of cocci, Bacillus (pl. bacilli) or single rod, Streptobacillus (pl. streptobacilli) or a
chain of rods.
3. What are the differences in the cell walls of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

Ans: Prokaryotic cell walls are composed of  peptidoglycan in bacteria

or pseudopeptidoglycan in archaea. Cell wall in gram-positive bacteria is characterized by a
thick peptidoglycan layer, whereas in gram-negative bacterial cells, the cell walls are
characterized by a thin peptidoglycan layer surrounded by an outer membrane. While among
the eukaryotes, cells of fungi, algae, plants, and some protists have a cell wall, whereas cells
of animals and some protozoans lack cell wall. The cell walls of plants, many algae and some
fungi are made of cellulose while most fungal cell wall contains chitin.

4. How is the DNA or genetic material organised in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

Ans: Prokaryotic DNA and DNA-associated proteins are not bound by a complex nuclear
membrane and occur as the nucleoid region in the cytoplasm of the cell. Prokaryotic
chromosomes are typically circular and haploid (unpaired). In bacteria, Nucleoid-associated
proteins (NAPs) interacts with   prokaryotic DNA and function like histones of eukaryotic
cells assisting in the organization and packaging of the chromosome. However, in archaea,
either NAPs or histone-like DNA organizing proteins associate with the chromosomal DNA
to organize the nucleoid. While in eukaryotes, the DNA in the form of chromosomes is
present inside the nucleus which is bound by a nuclear envelope.

5. What are the main organelles found in eukaryotic cells?

Ans: Eukaryote cells contain a variety of specialized membrane-bound structures called as

the endomembrane system or organelles. The main organelles present in eukaryotic cells are
nucleus, vesicles, the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, plastids and the Golgi apparatus.

References

1. Alberts, B., Johnson, A., Lewis, J., Raff, M., Roberts, Keith; Walter, P., (eds). c2002:
Molecular Biology of the Cell, Garland Science, New York and London.
2. Cooper, G.M., & R.E. Hausman, 2004: The Cell: A Molecular Approach, 3rd ed., G.
M. Cooper & R.E. Hausman, Sinauer Associates, Inc, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
3. Lodish, H. Berk, A, Zipursky, SL. et al.2000: Molecular Cell Biology, 4th edition,

W.H. Freeman, New York.

Links

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books

http://www.di.uq.edu.au/sparqglossary#b
https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu

https://cellbiology.med.unsw.edu.au

http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/view.php?id=13708&chapterid=30541