THE 10th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ADVANCED TOPICS IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

March 23-25, 2017

Bucharest, Romania

Development of a Wireless Battery Charger for

Dacia Electron EV
Andrei Marinescu1,2, SM IEEE, Adrian Vintila3, Danut Gabriel Marinescu4, Viorel Nicolae4
1
ACER, România
2
ASTR, România
3
ICMET, Craiova, România
4
University of Piteşti, România
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract- Wireless charging of electric or hybrid vehicles is a when driverless technology will become a reality.
modern technology based on power electronics with high Wireless charging does not lead to a substantial change of
prospects of extension both due to the advantages it offers
against the plug-in charging and as an integral part of the the topology used for modern plug-in charging.
technology for achieving autonomous vehicles, a highly topical With the same main components (inverter and rectifier),
issue. Although the theory of these wireless systems is well the insulating, closed core transformer from plug – in charger
known, at practical achievement one should take into account is replaced by an inductive coupler (open core transformer)
the conditions of use, where at least two elements with variable with separable coils achieved with resonant circuits and
character intervene: the battery charging state and the vehicle
ground clearance. Because transferred powers between 3 and 20 magnetic flux concentrators to improve the coupling factor
kW are involved, the efficiency of this conversion is essential. In approaching it in a certain measure to the original transformer
this paper there is described the wireless charger used for Dacia thus obtaining a wireless charging system as in Fig. 1. As a
Electron EV achieved on the structure of a Dacia Sandero series result the energy transfer efficiency of the two systems can
vehicle. become comparable by an appropriate design.
Keywords: Wireless battery charger, Inductive power transfer,
Medium frequency inverter, Test bench, Efficiency, Application.

I. INTRODUCTION
EV and HEV have storage batteries which can be charged
by plugging-in a rectifier to the public low voltage power
supply.
The charger can be separated from the EV or it can be on
board. It always includes an insulating transformer for
Fig. 1. Block diagram for a wireless IPT charger highlighting the
isolation to the power grid. The solution for direct components involved in efficient power transfer.
rectification of power supply voltage (50 Hz) leads to low
efficiency, generates harmonics, is heavy and has presently If efficiency of primary inverter and secondary rectifier are
been abandoned. In order to increase efficiency and reduce similar to those of plug-in chargers, the inductive coupler and
the weight of the charger, its topology has become similar to compensation circuits involved now form a critical area with
a SMPS (Switching Mode Power Supply) based on power a significant share in the overall efficiency in the absence of
electronics which also includes an insulating transformer, careful design of their parameters (working frequency but
only it now has reduced dimensions and weight since it also its variation depending on the distance and mutual
operates at high switching frequency of the inverter. position of the coils) [3], specific arrangements applying this
However, the plug-in method, in both versions, raises a technology to EVs.
number of issues, the most important of which being the The paper presents the development and implementation of
impossibility of integral automation of the recharging process the wireless charger with a power at least 3 kW for Dacia
(the starting and the ending of this process require manual Electron, a full electric car developed by CCIA (Research
operation by connection to an AC socket, regardless of the Centre for cars engineering) at the University of Pitesti on the
environmental conditions - rain or snow) but also the danger frame of series car Sandero done by Dacia company that
not to be neglected for electric shock in case of damage to the serves both for current exploitation of this system but also for
power cable or vandalism [1, 2]. The transition from the staff training for all university level in EV operation of such
plug-in to plug-free (wireless) charging through a contactless systems.
Inductive Power Transfer (IPT), working in magnetic There are described the choosing topology of the inductive
near-field, besides eliminating the above drawbacks, is resonant coupler, issues of standardization, efficiency and
considered as the only solution to apply in the near future interoperability, building and operation of the medium

978-1-5090-5160-1/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE

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frequency inverter with variable load to charge batteries,
experimental verification system both on the test bench fitted
with the necessary electrical/electronic facilities and on the
car in question.
II. DESIGN OF THE INDUCTIVE COUPLER
Fig. 4. Equivalent diagram of a SP resonant system for a battery charger.
The inductive coupler is a two-port circuit like in Fig. 2,
made of two planar nonpolarized circular coils located on the A method of measurement based on voltage ratio method
ground and at the bottom of the vehicle so that the ground using a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA) described at length
clearance thereof would not be reduced. In the most general in [6] using the parameters defined above was developed for
case, the coils may be coaxial, parallel or inclined, and the fast determination of inductive coupler parameters in the
distance (h) between coils may be variable (axis z), but their laboratory but also in real assembling conditions. Fig. 5
offset on the axes x or y is not excluded. For increasing the illustrates the experimental measurement conditions and
natural coupling factor k, one appeals to ferrite flux Fig. 6 shows the test bench (frame dimension 1.5x1.5x1.0 m)
concentrators as in Fig. 3 [4]. To increase the power factor, used to simulate the working conditions in operation.
the leakage inductances of the inductive coupler from the
primary (Tx) and secondary (Rx) are compensated by
capacitors connected series or parallel by one of the four
Rx
simple known topologies: SS, SP, PS and PP [5]. The
solution applied by us is the SP topology (Fig. 4) with a series
Tx
resonance in primary for increasing the voltage applied to the
coupler and a parallel resonance in secondary to get a current VNA
generator better adapted to achieve a battery charger. The
Spacers, h = 120 mm
S - P topology ensures satisfactory power transmission
efficiency and improves the energy coupling to the secondary
side.
Fig. 5. Laboratory experimental set-up.

Fig. 2. Equivalent diagram of an inductive coupler.

Fig. 6. Test bench (1.5 x 1.5 x 1.0 m) which provides the coil movement
The sizes of the transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx) coils on three axes.
used in this inductive coupler are able to transmit a power of
III. INDUCTIVE COUPLER OPTIMIZATION
minimum 3 kW under steady-state regime at a maximal
temperature of 70 ˚C degrees and up to 5 kW under The optimization of an inductive coupler design consists in
short-time duty (5 minutes). The coils are made of Litz wire the maximization of kQ figure of merit, where k is the
with a square cross section equivalent to 4.1 x 4.1 mm2 with coupling factor and Q is the overall quality factor of the
300 strands of 0.2 mm. coupler
k = M/(L1L2)1/2 (1)
where M is the mutual inductance of the two coils with L1
and L2 inductances and R1 and R2, AC resistances at the
operating frequency of the coupler.
Starting from the relation (1), by simple calculations it can
be shown that if the two quality factors of the two coils are
considered, one gets:
k = ωM/(Q1Q2Re1Re2)1/2 (2)
where Re1, Re2 are the equivalent resistances of the two
coupled circuits formed by the AC resistances of the two coils
Fig. 3. Planar transmitter coil (Tx) used in our inductive coupler. (R1, R2) to which the resistances of other circuit elements
D/d = 250/60 mm with 18 turns; under the coil, the flux concentrators made
of cross mounted 50 x 150 mm ferrite bars. The second coil (Rx) is smaller (internal resistance of power supply, load resistance a.s.o.) are
D/d = 170/60 mm with 13 turns to improve the misalignment behavior. added.

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 Relation (2) can be further transformed if the geometric reserved to ISM (Industrial, Scientific, Medical) equipment
means of the two quality factors and of the two resistances [11] but the chances of interfering with radio -
are noted by Q and R, respectively; one obtains: communication services are minimal.
k = ωM/QR (3) IV. EV BATTERY AS LOAD FOR WIRELESS CHARGER
or The load represented in Fig. 1 is a variable load for the
charger and inductive coupler (R3 in Fig. 4), depending on the
FOM = kQ = ωM/R (4) state of charging (SOC) condition of the battery fitted on the
EV of a particular client. So, the correct sizing of the system
the last relation representing the so called “figure of requires knowledge of the charging parameter specific for the
merit”(FOM) of the coupler [7] which takes into account the type and capacity of the battery used [12]. One of the most
effect of all dissipative elements from the circuit. So, the kQ used models for the storage battery is proposed by Randles in
product determines the power transfer efficiency (PTE) [8]: 1947 [13] given in Fig. 7.
PTE ≈ (kQ)2/{1 + [1 + (kQ)2] 1/2} (5)
relation that could by simplified
PTE ≈ 1 – (2/kQ) (6)
Fig. 7. Basic Randles model, ESR - equivalent series resistance, ESL -
for kQ > 10 equivalent series inductance, Rleakage - leakage resistance, Ce - ideal battery
PTE is different from the power delivered to load (PDL) capacitance.
defined as:
ESR is a function of the battery cells mechanical
PDL = U22/RL (7)
construction and ESL is a function of cells connections
The maximum of the two quantities does not coincide [9], inductance which has an important value only in the case of
so as in practice a compromise is achieved. EV HV batteries.
The losses can be expressed as a loss factor: The battery in fact is represented by an electrochemical
capacitor Ce whose capacitance (a very high value of tens of
λ = Ploss/PTE (8)
F) is a function both of the battery capacity (Ah) and of the
The losses related to the transferred power result in a battery state of charge (SOC) as simple relationship:
minimum loss factor, which can be achieved by a given
Ce [F] = 2W/(Umax2 - Umin2) (8)
wireless power system if generator and load are proper
matched [7]: where Umax and Umin represent battery end of charge
maximum voltage respectively accepted for discharge
λmin = 2/(kQ)2{1 + [1 + (kQ)2]1/2} (9)
minimum voltage or depth of discharge (DOD) and W is the
It is noticeable that k has low values (below 0.15) battery energy:
especially if one uses IPT at cars with ground clearance
W [Ws] = 3600 x (Ah) x UN = 0.5 x Ce x UN2
between 100 and 350 mm (in ascending order, from sport cars
up to off road cars) and Dacia Electron which will be treated A typical Li-Ion charge cycle [13] consists of a constant
in this paper has a ground clearance of 160 mm. Therefore, in current (CC) regulation mode and a constant voltage (CV)
practice, the figure of merit can be raised only by increasing regulation mode so that the output characteristic of a battery
the quality factor of coils and also by increasing to a certain charger is a combination of constant current charging and
extent the operating frequency of a given coupler, because constant voltage charging. Most energy is transferred during
there is an optimum related to the increase of the losses in the CC mode, so higher CC current will reduce charge time.
coupler and electronic supply circuits of the charger with the This charge duty for Li-ion battery is given in Fig. 8.
increase of frequency.
At present, in the lack of standards in force and for using
some usual power switching components, one uses operating
frequencies between 10 and 50 kHz (in our case the chosen
resonance frequency is about 42 kHz) but, in the future, SAE
[10] proposes the use of some higher frequencies, 85 kHz, in
the very limited range (81.39–90 kHz) which, besides the
decrease of the component sizes, provides also the
Fig. 8. The main characteristic quantities at a battery charging.
interoperability of systems coming from different
manufacturers, crucial action for the success of this Constant current charging is completed when the battery
technology. All operating frequencies from above are agreed voltage reaches the cut-off-voltage [1] and is still maintained
at present, although they are not within the frequency range almost constant until the end of the charging process, during

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which the charging output power decreases 5-10 times. This to excessive heating of the battery and the reduction of
type of characteristic must be taken into consideration for battery life due to a decrease in the number of
dimensioning the charging system with voltage and current charge/discharge cycles. There are three levels for charging
sensors included in the control loop. [1] in the range of 0.15C to 1C. For example, level 1, namely
The battery used in this stage on Dacia Electron (Fig. 9) is 0.15 C is reached for a current of 10 A and a reasonable 6
the LPF type (LiFePO4) [14] which utilizes a nanoscale hours charging time, using only 2.56 kW from our Mode 2
LiFePO4 material as a cathode. LFP batteries have lower charger [10], developed for Dacia Electron.
energy density than other Lithium batteries but they have V. THE WIRELESS IPT CHARGER
longer lifetimes, better power density and are inherently safer
[13]. The main characteristics of the battery are shown in Starting from the block diagram in Fig. 1, Fig. 10 describes
Table I. the developed system based on a medium frequency inverter
A battery management system (BMS) is tightly integrated with improved 3/5 kW output power and the following
with the battery. It monitors the operating parameters: features: single-phase full bridge MOSFET resonant voltage
voltage, current and temperature and controls the charging source AC/DC with ZVS [15], phase shifted regulated
rate to provide the required constant current / constant voltage topology; an automatic frequency control between 30 and
(CC/CV) charging profile and it triggers the protection 60 kHz compensates the output power variation from
circuits if the battery's operating limits are exceeded, isolating coupling factor k change with distance and misalignment [4,
the battery if needed [1]. The maximum usable charge current 6] of the coupler coils but does not overlook the variation of
in CC mode and the cut-off voltage determine the charger's the internal resistance of the battery during the charging
rated power. process (see Fig. 8) that can change the system splitting
resonance frequencies. Circuits are provided for open - and
TABLE I
short-circuit protection. In addition to these protections, it
LPF BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS USED ON DACIA ELECTRON controls the temperature of the coupler coils and of the
Type: LYP 60 AHA Max charge current: 180 A MOSFET switches.
Capacity per cell: 60 Ah Optimal charge current: < 30A
Rated voltage: 205V (3.2V/cell) End of charge voltage: 256 V (4.0V/cell)
Connection: series Range: 100 km
Cell number: 64 Efficiency: 0.123 kWh/km
Energy: 12.3 kWh Weight: 160 kg

Fig. 10. Complete diagram of the wireless charger.

The connection with the S-P inductive coupler is achieved

through a matching transformer fitted with taps for tuning to
the load represented by the EV battery which is charged by a
Schottky diodes full bridge rectifier with capacitive filter
located in the EV separately from the Tx pad on the EV
floorpan. Using the described voltage control systems, the DC
output voltage can vary between 20-300 V. The
communication between the inverter and the battery state of
Fig. 9. LiFePO4 Battery during charging. charge (SoC) is wireless. The power supply from the 230 V
single phase AC source is achieved through an EMI filter to
An important parameter for all batteries but especially for reduce the disturbance transmitted in the AC network. In
use in automotive is the C-Rate, which represents the rate of addition to the conducted disturbances, the operation of IPT
battery charge/discharge, by definition the numerical value of systems is accompanied by radiated disturbances resulting
the ratio (A/Ah) between current in A and battery capacity in from switching of power electronic circuits and by the stray
Ah. 1C means battery charge/discharge within 60 minutes. magnetic field of the inductive coupler [16], all these
For Li batteries, the maximum value of C-Rate is currently disturbances would have to be within the limits stipulated by
2C [13]; this means that the 60 Ah battery could be charged ICNIRP regulation [17].
by 120 A in 30 minutes time! This charging condition is In Fig. 11 it can be seen the inverter during laboratory tests
known as “very fast charging” which can be necessary for for determining the functional parameters and transfer
special applications but it is usually avoided because it leads efficiency.

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 Fig. 13. The Wireless IPT implementation on the Dacia Electron.

The electric propulsion system called AMBRA (Amber =

Electron in Greek) is built according to the current standards
of components (connectors, cables, etc.) similar to those used
by Duster ZERO (Zero Emission ROmanian concept) [18]
and the electrical system ELECTRA that was used in
Fig. 11. Control board and power board under tests in laboratory. different concepts of electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles:
Dacia Electra - 2009 [19], Grand Hamster – 2011 [20].
Our wireless inductive charger has been optimized for use The AMBRA electric powertrain (Fig. 14) is mounted in
in Dacia Electron with ground clearance of 160 mm and the car front side and includes the following components:
mounting pick-up Rx coil in an area of the floorpan where the interconnection box, charger, traction inverter module,
distance from the ground is 195 mm in order that in any electric motor & gearbox, vacuum pump, and AC
traffic situation it can not be damaged. As it will be shown, compressor. The liquid cooled electric motor provides a
the distance Tx - Rx will be between 84 and 110 mm. constant 18 kW power and has a peak output power of 31
kW. It generates a constant torque of 90 Nm @ 2850 rpm or a
peak of 160 Nm @ 1400 rpm. The control of the electric
P2 (W)
U2 (V) 400 4000
motor mounted above motor-reducer assembly is a vector
350 3500 control AC motor drive. The Traction Battery System
300 3000
includes the battery pack discussed in details above mounted
in the place of the fuel tank, a Battery Management System
250 2500
and a Battery Monitor System placed in the dashboard
200 2000 display [21].
150 1500

U2 P2
100 1000

50 500

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
U1 (V)

Fig. 12. U2, P2 = f (U1) for a distance h = 110 mm.

Figure 12 shows the characteristics of voltage U2 and

power P2 to the charger's DC output in function of the U1,
RMS value of Tx coil accepted for a maximum distance of
h = 110 mm and a load resistance RL of 28 Ω that simulates
the EV battery charged with a current min. 10 A. At the
minimum distance of 84 mm power increases by 23 % to
3.7 kW. To note that the voltage U1 reaches a relatively high Fig. 14. AMBRA powertrain compartment.
value of 1600 V which is not dangerous because it represents
only 90 V/ turn. General scheme of inductive charging system shown in
Fig. 13 includes three parts: the mechanical assembly and
VI. DACIA ELECTRON EV WITH WIRELESS BATTERY alignment guidance coils, the ground transmission unit
CHARGING
assembly with the Tx transmitter pad and their lift-type
The new Dacia Electron on which the IPT system was system and the vehicle receiver unit with the pick-up Rx pad.
mounted is derived from the well known Dacia Sandero Prior to charging, an integrated electric motor in the Tx
model, by the CCIA (Automotive Engineering Research floor pad raises the Tx coil to improve the power transfer.
Centre) from University of Pitesti using the same mechanical The driver can interrupt the charging process. Also, the
platform (Fig. 13). charging stops automatically when the traction battery is full.

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 As it was shown in the previous paragraph, the wireless Most of these elements are optimized during the design
charger transmits 3 to 3.7 kW at distances between 110 and stage of the IPT system, however, when used for charging EV
84 mm by the two pads shown in Figure 15 including batteries, the ground clearance and imperfect mutual set-up of
resonant capacitors. the inductive coupler coils remain variable, both leading to
the modification of the optimal coupling factor and the
transfer efficiency. For this reason the operating frequency
must to be modified in a certain range to compensate for a
possible change in the efficiency; this action is basically
carried out in an automatic control loop.
At present, the existing data in the literature [22] show that
the overall efficiency of plug-in charging stations based on
the SMPS (Fig. 1) is on average 85 - 90%. Wireless systems
based on the same principle which using common electronic
components as shown in this paper, currently have an
approximately 10% lower efficiency, that is of 75 - 80%,
especially due to losses in the inductive coupler itself.

VIII. CONCLUSIONS
Fig. 15. Stationary Tx pad (380 mm x 270 mm x 40 mm) and pick-up Rx
pad (340 mm x 260 mm x 40 mm) ready to be used. The paper describes the first wireless charging system for
an EV developed in Romania. Wireless IPT is reliable,
In Fig. 16 it is shown the mounting of pick-up Rx pad in a comfortable, efficient, fast, with low maintenance cost.
protected floorpan area on Dacia Electron. Now, Romania has a laboratory and road infrastructure for
wireless charging development.
The Dacia Electron EV is used to carry out the first
wireless charging station at the “Automotive Engineering
Research Centre” of the University of Pitesti which will be
used for all level staff training in EV technology.
The research and development for these systems will
continue on the following topics:
- design of high power planar coils with Litz wire windings
Rx with focus on factor of merit ;
- shielding and packaging of transmitter/receiver units;
- efficiency improvement of resonant inverters using SiC
power semiconductors;
- development of advanced parking guidance;
Fig.16 Location of Rx pad on Dacia Electron.
- EMC analysis and design complying with ICNIRP
Limiting variation interval of working distance Tx - Rx Regulation.
given above using lift - type system for Tx pad is an Finally, the large scale introduction of wireless charging
important measure for efficiency increasing, mitigation after international standardization is strongly connected to the
interference with other EV electronic devices and limiting the driverless technology.
stray magnetic fields according to ICNIRP [17] but to note
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
that all these disturbances appear only when the EV is over
the charging pad.
Sandero Electron EV was achieved with support from
RENAULT TECHNOLOGIE ROUMANIE, LEAR
VII. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE EFFICIENCY OF PLUG-IN ROMANIA, SCHNEIDER ELECTRIC ROMANIA to whom
AND WIRELESS CHARGERS we express our gratitude.
In order to determine the energy transfer efficiency for an
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