Quantum Hall effect

The quantum Hall effect (or integer quantum Hall effect) is a quantum-mechanical version
of the Hall effect, observed in two-dimensional electron systems subjected to low
temperatures and strong magnetic fields, in which the Hall conductance σ undergoes
quantum Hall transitions to take on the quantized values at certain level

where Ichannel is the channel current, VHall is the Hall voltage, e is the elementary charge
and h is Planck's constant. The prefactor ν is known as the filling factor, and can take on
1 2 3 2 3 1 2 3 5 12
either integer (ν = 1, 2, 3,...) or fractional (ν = 3 , 5 , 7 , 3 , 5 , 5 , 9 , 13 , 2 , 5 ,...) values. The
quantum Hall effect is referred to as the integer or fractional quantum Hall effect depending
on whether ν is an integer or fraction, respectively.

The striking feature of the integer quantum Hall effect is the persistence of the quantization
(i.e. the Hall plateau) as the electron density is varied. Since the electron density remains
constant when the Fermi level is in a clean spectral gap, this situation corresponds to one
where the Fermi level is an energy with a finite density of states, though these states are
localized (see Anderson localization).[1]

The fractional quantum Hall effect is more complicated, as its existence relies fundamentally
on electron–electron interactions. The fractional quantum Hall effect is also understood as an
integer quantum Hall effect, although not of electrons but of charge-flux composites known as
composite fermions. In 1988, it was proposed that there was quantum Hall effect without
Landau levels.[2] This quantum Hall effect is referred to as the quantum anomalous Hall
(QAH) effect. There is also a new concept of the quantum spin Hall effect which is an analogue
of the quantum Hall effect, where spin currents flow instead of charge currents.[3]

Contents
Applications
History
Integer quantum Hall effect – Landau levels
Photonic Quantum Hall
Mathematics
The Bohr atom interpretation of the von Klitzing constant
Relativistic analogs
See also
References
Further reading

Applications
The quantization of the Hall conductance has the important property of being exceedingly
precise. Actual measurements of the Hall conductance have been found to be integer or
e2
fractional multiples of
h to nearly one part in a billion. This phenomenon, referred to as
exact quantization, has been shown to be a subtle manifestation of the principle of gauge
invariance.[4] It has allowed for the definition of a new practical standard for electrical
resistance, based on the resistance quantum given by the von Klitzing constant RK. This is
named after Klaus von Klitzing, the discoverer of exact quantization. The quantum Hall effect
also provides an extremely precise independent determination of the fine-structure constant,
a quantity of fundamental importance in quantum electrodynamics.

In 1990, a fixed conventional value RK-90 = 25 812.807 Ω was defined for use in resistance
calibrations worldwide.[5] On 16 November 2018, the 26th meeting of the General Conference
on Weights and Measures decided to fix exact values of h (the Planck constant) and e (the
elementary charge),[6] superseding the 1990 value with an exact permanent value
h
RK = e2 = 25 812.807 45... Ω.[7]

History
The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), invented by Mohamed Atalla
and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959,[8] enabled physicists to study electron behavior in a
nearly ideal two-dimensional gas.[9] In a MOSFET, conduction electrons travel in a thin surface
layer, and a "gate" voltage controls the number of charge carriers in this layer. This allows
researchers to explore quantum effects by operating high-purity MOSFETs at liquid helium
temperatures.[9]

The integer quantization of the Hall conductance was originally predicted by University of
Tokyo researchers Tsuneya Ando, Yukio Matsumoto and Yasutada Uemura in 1975, on the
basis of an approximate calculation which they themselves did not believe to be true.[10] In
1978, the Gakushuin University researchers Jun-ichi Wakabayashi and Shinji Kawaji
subsequently observed the effect in experiments carried out on the inversion layer of
MOSFETs.[11]

In 1980, Klaus von Klitzing, working at the high magnetic field laboratory in Grenoble with
silicon-based MOSFET samples developed by Michael Pepper and Gerhard Dorda, made the
unexpected discovery that the Hall conductivity was exactly quantized.[12][9] For this finding,
von Klitzing was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics. The link between exact
quantization and gauge invariance was subsequently found by Robert Laughlin, who
connected the quantized conductivity to the quantized charge transport in Thouless charge
pump.[4][13] Most integer quantum Hall experiments are now performed on gallium arsenide
heterostructures, although many other semiconductor materials can be used. In 2007, the
integer quantum Hall effect was reported in graphene at temperatures as high as room
temperature,[14] and in the magnesium zinc oxide ZnO–MgxZn1−xO.[15]

Integer quantum Hall effect – Landau levels

In two dimensions, when classical electrons are subjected to a magnetic field they follow
circular cyclotron orbits. When the system is treated quantum mechanically, these orbits are
quantized. To determine the values of the energy levels the Schrödinger equation must be
solved.

Since the system is subjected to a magnetic field, it has to be introduced as an electromagnetic

vector potential in the Schrödinger equation.The system considered is an electron gas that is
free to move in the x and y directions, but tightly confined in the z direction. Then, it is applied
a magnetic field along the z direction and according to the Landau Gauge the electromagnetic
vector potential is and the scalar potential is . Thus the Schrödinger
equation for a particle of charge and effective mass in this system is:

where is the canonical momentum, which is replaced by the operator and is the
total energy.

To solve this equation it is possible to separate it into two equations since the magnetic field
just affects the movement along x and y. The total energy becomes then, the sum of two
contributions . The corresponding two equations are:

In z axis:

To simply the solution it is considered as an infinite well, thus the solutions for the z

direction are the energies and the wavefunctions are

sinusoidal. For the x and y directions, the solution of the Schrödinger equation is the product
of a plane wave in y-direction with some unknown function of x since the vector potential
does not depend on y, i.e. . By substituting this Ansatz into the Schrödinger

equation one gets the one-dimensional harmonic oscillator equation centered at .

where is defined as the cyclotron frequency and the magnetic length.
The energies are:

And the wavefunctions for the motion in the xy plane are given by the product of a plane
wave in y and Hermite polynomials, which are the wavefuntions of an harmonic oscillator.

From the expression for the Landau levels one notices that the energy depends only on , not
on . States with the same but different are degenerate. The density of states collapses
from the constant for the two-dimensional electron gas (density of states per unit surface at a

given energy taking into account degeneration due to spin ) to a series of -

functions called Landau levels separated . In a real system, however, the Landau

levels acquire a width being the time between scattering events. Commonly it is

assumed that the precise shape of Landau levels is a Gaussian or Lorentzian profile.

Another feature is that the wave functions form parallel strips in the -direction spaced
equally along the -axis, along the lines of . Since there is nothing special about any
direction in the -plane if the vector potential was differently chosen one should find
circular symmetry.

Given a sample of dimensions and applying the periodic boundary conditions in the

-direction being an integer, one gets that each parabolic potential is placed at a

value .

The number of states for each Landau Level and can

be calculated from the ratio between the total
magnetic flux that passes through the sample and the
magnetic flux corresponding to a state.

Parabolic potentials along the -axis

centered at with the 1st wave functions
corresponding to an infinite well
confinement in the direction. In the -
direction there are travelling plane waves.
Thus the density of states per unit surface is .

Note the dependency of the density of states with the magnetic field. The largest the magnetic
field is, the more states are in each Landau level. As a consequence, there is more confinement
in the system since less energy levels are occupied.

Rewriting the last expression as it is clear that each Landau level contains as

many states as in a 2DEG in a .

Given the fact that electrons are fermions, for each state available in the Landau levels it

corresponds two electrons, one electron with each value for the spin . However, if a
large magnetic field is applied, the energies split into two levels due to the magnetic moment
associated with the alignment of the spin with the magnetic field. The difference in the

energies is being a factor which depends on the material ( for free

electrons) and Bohr's magneton. The sign is taken when the spin is parallel to the field
and when it is antiparallel. This fact called spin splitting implies that the density of states
for each level is reduced by a half. Note that is proportional to the magnetic field so, the
larger the magnetic field is, the more relevant is the split.

In order to get the number of occupied Landau levels,

one defines the so-called filling factor as the ratio
between the density of states in a 2DEG and the density
of states in the Landau levels.

Density of states in a magnetic field,

neglecting spin splitting. (a)The states in
In general the filling factor is not an integer. It each range are squeezed into a -
happens to be an integer when there is an exact function Landau level.(b) Landau levels
number of filled Landau levels. Instead, it becomes a have a non-zero width in a more realistic
non-integer when the top level is not fully occupied. picture and overlap if . (c) The
Since , by increasing the magnetic field, the levels become distinct when .
Landau levels move up in energy and the number of
states in each level grow, so fewer electrons occupy the
top level until it becomes empty. If the magnetic field keeps increasing, eventually, all
electrons will be in the lowest Landau level ( ) and this is called the magnetic quantum
limit.

It is possible to relate the filling factor to the resistivity and hence, to the conductivity of the
system:

Longitudinal resistivity

When is an integer, the Fermi energy lies in between Landau levels where there are no
states available for carriers, so the conductivity becomes zero (it is considered that the
magnetic field is big enough so that there is no overlap between Landau levels, otherwise
there would be few electrons and the conductivity would be approximately ). Consequently,
the resistivity becomes zero too (At very high magnetic fields it is proven that longitudinal
conductivity and resistivity are proportional).[16]
Instead, when is a half-integer, the Fermi energy is
located at the peak of the density distribution of some
Fermi Level. This means that the conductivity will
have a maximum .

This distribution of minimums and maximums Occupation of Landau levels in a magnetic

corresponds to ¨quantum oscillations¨ called field neglecting the spin splitting, showing
Shubnikov–de Haas oscillations which become more how the Fermi level moves to maintain a
relevant as the magnetic field increases. Obviously, the constant density of electrons. The fields are
height of the peaks are larger as the magnetic field
increases since the density of states increases with the in the ratio and give
field, so there are more carrier which contribute to the and .
resistivity. It is interesting to notice that if the magnetic
field is very small, the longitudinal resistivity is a
constant which means that the classical result is reached.

Transverse resistivity

From the classical relation of the transverse resistivity

and substituting one finds

out the quantization of the transverse resistivity and

conductivity:

Longitudinal and transverse (Hall)

resistivity, and , of a two-
One concludes then, that the transverse resistivity is a
dimensional electron gas as a function of
multiple of the inverse of the so-called conductance
magnetic field. The inset shows
quantum . Nevertheless, in the experiments it is divided by the quantum unit of
observed a plateau between the Landau levels, which conductance as a function of the
indicates that there are carriers in between Landau filling factor .
levels indeed. These carriers are localized in, for
example, impurities of the material where they are
trapped in orbits so they can not contribute to the conductivity. That is why the resistivity
remains constant in between Landau levels. Again if the magnetic field decreases, one gets the
classical result in which the resistivity is proportional to the magnetic field.

Photonic Quantum Hall

The Quantum Hall effect, in addition to being observed in two-dimensional electron systems,
can be observed in photons. Photons do not possess inherent electric charge, but through the
manipulation of discrete optical resonators and quantum mechanical phase, therein creates
an artificial magnetic field.[17] This process can be expressed through a metaphor of photons
bouncing between multiple mirrors. By shooting the light across multiple mirrors, the photons
are routed and gain additional phase proportional to their angular momentum. This creates
an effect like they are in a magnetic field.

Mathematics
The integers that appear in the Hall effect are examples of
topological quantum numbers. They are known in
mathematics as the first Chern numbers and are closely
related to Berry's phase. A striking model of much interest in
this context is the Azbel–Harper–Hofstadter model whose
quantum phase diagram is the Hofstadter butterfly shown in
the figure. The vertical axis is the strength of the magnetic
field and the horizontal axis is the chemical potential, which
fixes the electron density. The colors represent the integer Hofstadter's butterfly
Hall conductances. Warm colors represent positive integers
and cold colors negative integers. Note, however, that the
density of states in these regions of quantized Hall
conductance is zero; hence, they cannot produce the plateaus observed in the experiments.
The phase diagram is fractal and has structure on all scales. In the figure there is an obvious
self-similarity. In the presence of disorder, which is the source of the plateaus seen in the
experiments, this diagram is very different and the fractal structure is mostly washed away.

Concerning physical mechanisms, impurities and/or particular states (e.g., edge currents) are
important for both the 'integer' and 'fractional' effects. In addition, Coulomb interaction is also
essential in the fractional quantum Hall effect. The observed strong similarity between integer
and fractional quantum Hall effects is explained by the tendency of electrons to form bound
states with an even number of magnetic flux quanta, called composite fermions.

The Bohr atom interpretation of the von Klitzing constant

The value of the von Klitzing constant may be obtained already on the level of a single atom
within the Bohr model while looking at it as a single-electron Hall effect. While during the
cyclotron motion on a circular orbit the centrifugal force is balanced by the Lorentz force
responsible for the transverse induced voltage and the Hall effect one may look at the
Coulomb potential difference in the Bohr atom as the induced single atom Hall voltage and the
periodic electron motion on a circle a Hall current. Defining the single atom Hall current as a
rate a single electron charge is making Kepler revolutions with angular frequency

and the induced Hall voltage as a difference between the hydrogen nucleus Coulomb potential
at the electron orbital point and at infinity:

One obtains the quantization of the defined Bohr orbit Hall resistance in steps of the von
Klitzing constant as

which for the Bohr atom is linear but not inverse in the integer n.

Relativistic analogs
Relativistic examples of the integer quantum Hall effect and quantum spin Hall effect arise in
the context of lattice gauge theory.[18][19]

See also
Quantum Hall transitions Hall effect
Fractional quantum Hall effect Hall probe
Quantum anomalous Hall effect Graphene
Quantum cellular automata Quantum spin Hall effect
Composite fermions Coulomb potential between two current loops
Conductance Quantum embedded in a magnetic field

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Further reading
D. R. Yennie (1987). "Integral quantum Hall effect for nonspecialists". Rev. Mod. Phys. 59 (3): 781–
824. Bibcode:1987RvMP...59..781Y (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987RvMP...59..781Y).
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.59.781 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.59.781).
D. Hsieh; D. Qian; L. Wray; Y. Xia; Y. S. Hor; R. J. Cava; M. Z. Hasan (2008). "A topological Dirac
insulator in a quantum spin Hall phase". Nature. 452 (7190): 970–974. arXiv:0902.1356 (https://ar
xiv.org/abs/0902.1356). Bibcode:2008Natur.452..970H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008
Natur.452..970H). doi:10.1038/nature06843 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06843).
PMID 18432240 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18432240).
25 years of Quantum Hall Effect, K. von Klitzing, Poincaré Seminar (Paris-2004). Postscript (https://
web.archive.org/web/20070304025657/http://parthe.lpthe.jussieu.fr/poincare/textes/novembre2
004.html). Pdf (https://web.archive.org/web/20110707025318/http://hrma.physics.sjtu.edu.cn/P
hysicsHorizon/25yearsQHE-lecture.pdf).
Magnet Lab Press Release Quantum Hall Effect Observed at Room Temperature (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20071222020625/http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/mediacenter/news/pressreleases/20
07february15.html)
 Avron, Joseph E.; Osadchy, Daniel; Seiler, Ruedi (2003). "A Topological Look at the Quantum Hall
Effect". Physics Today. 56 (8): 38. Bibcode:2003PhT....56h..38A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/ab
s/2003PhT....56h..38A). doi:10.1063/1.1611351 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1611351).
Zyun F. Ezawa: Quantum Hall Effects - Field Theoretical Approach and Related Topics. (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=p3JpcdbqBPoC) World Scientific, Singapore 2008, ISBN 978-981-270-
032-2
Sankar D. Sarma, Aron Pinczuk: Perspectives in Quantum Hall Effects. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2004,
ISBN 978-0-471-11216-7
A. Baumgartner; T. Ihn; K. Ensslin; K. Maranowski; A. Gossard (2007). "Quantum Hall effect
transition in scanning gate experiments". Phys. Rev. B. 76 (8): 085316.
Bibcode:2007PhRvB..76h5316B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvB..76h5316B).
doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.76.085316 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.76.085316).
E. I. Rashba and V. B. Timofeev, Quantum Hall Effect, Sov. Phys. - Semiconductors v. 20, pp. 617–
647 (1986).

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