Cost Effectiveness in Textile Processing - Free Textile Industry Articles - Fibre2fashion
Cost Effectiveness in Textile Processing - Free Textile Industry Articles - Fibre2fashion
Cost Effectiveness in Textile Processing - Free Textile Industry Articles - Fibre2fashion
Answer to all your Tex韴�le needs
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Cost effec̀veness in tex̀le processing
By: Abhishek Jadhav (h韕�ps://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry‐ar韴�cle/author/abhishek‐jadhav/207) Nitin Ajmera (h韕�ps://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry‐ar韴�cle/author/ni韴�n‐ajmera/209) Abhishek Jadhav
Published : Oct 2007
(h韕�p://www.fibre2fashion.com/members/login.aspx?myurl=h韕�p://www.fibre2fashion.com/industry‐ar韴�cle/2573/cost‐effec韴�veness‐in‐tex韴�le‐processing)
Indian Tex韴�le Industry has great poten韴�al to dominate the Global Tex韴�le Market. We have a strong tradi韴�on of tex韴�les and vastly talented
persons in the trade. The tex韴�le industry has to strive and put in some real work towards fulfilling such expecta韴�ons. Hence wet
processing of the future should be cost effec韴�ve, environmentally friendly and gentle to the tex韴�le material. Innova韴�ve efficient strategies
to achieve these goals are needed. This paper reports various such innova韴�ve techniques like Right first 韴�me dyeing, super cri韴�cal CO2
dyeing, foam finishing and various measures of energy and water conserva韴�on which makes Tex韴�le Processing eco‐friendly and cost
effec韴�ve in future.
Introduc韴�on:
Steps taken at various stages of wet processing of tex韴�les to ensure quality of products, par韴�cularly in the decentralized sector. A few
important guidelines for various cost saving measures by process modifica韴�ons and adop韴�ng new concepts based on modern
technological changes are also given. The special importance of using eco‐friendly dyes and chemicals is also highlighted in view of latest
ban on the export of tex韴�les using such dyes.
ENERGY AND WATER CONSERVATION:
Conserva韴�on is derived from the La韴�n words con (together) and servare (guard). 1 In every country, the growing needs of energy in
various fields of ac韴�vi韴�es have led to the necessity of finding out ways and means to avoid wastage and conserve the energy. Water is
expensive to buy, treat, and dispose. Tex韴�le industries are consuming large quan韴�ty of water. Major por韴�on of water is used for wet
processing of tex韴�le (60 to 70 %). Keeping this in mind there is acute need of energy and water conserva韴�on programmed to implement as
earlier as possible.
Energy conserva韴�on:
Energy is one of the most important ingredients in any industrial ac韴�vity. However, its availability is not infinite. Global energy crisis,
as well as high cost of fuels resulted in more ac韴�vi韴�es to conserve energy to maximum extent. The tex韴�le industry retains a record of the
lowest efficiency in energy u韴�liza韴�on and is one of the major energy consuming industries. About 34% of energy is consumed in spinning,
23% in weaving, 38% in chemical wet processing and another 5% for miscellaneous purposes. Power dominates consump韴�on pa韕�ern in
spinning and weaving, while thermal energy is major for chemical wet processing.
Preven韴�ve energy conserva韴�on ‐ finding‐energy losses and solu韴�ons of them:
Following are the major sources from where energy is lost in various forms:
Energy loss through hot vapours and hot water discharge:
A large amount of thermal energy, either in the form of hot exhaust gases or hot vapours is ejected into the atmosphere or down the drain
as waste from various processing machinery in the tex韴�le mills. The recovery of such waste for reuse is es韴�mated to effect 5 to 7% saving
in the cost. For example:
● Flue gases in plain and thermic fluid boilers.
● Liquor, water and their vapours in the kiers, agers, jiggers, jet dyeing and beam dyeing machines.
● Exhaust gases from the stenters.1
Major sources of hot wastewater discharge are desizing washes, scouring, merceriza韴�on, dying and steam condensate wastage. Most of
the wastewater streams are discharged at the temperature of 60‐70 0C.
3.2.2. Chemicals & auxiliary tes韴�ng:
Various organic and inorganic chemicals of commercial grade are used in dyeing with different classes of dyestuff. Apart from this,
different auxiliaries products, viz., dispersing agents, we韑�ng agent, defoamers, etc., are used for specific purpose in a par韴�cular dyeing
opera韴�on. These auxiliaries and chemicals should be tested for their purity and/ or performance before use in bulk dyeing. These may be
broadly grouped as follows: ‐
● Dye fixing agent
● Dispersing agent
● Leveling agent
● An韴�foaming agent
● Carrier and accelerant
● Miscellaneous chemicals and auxiliaries
The procedure for the tes韴�ng of these auxiliaries and chemicals are generally carried out by volumetric methods or by comparing
between the two samples, one dyed by using auxiliary and the other, without using auxiliary.
3.2.3. Water parameters:
Contaminants, especially metals, can have substan韴�al effect on many tex韴�le wet processes. The effects are not always adverse but
make process and machinery op韴�miza韴�on and control difficult. The most common impuri韴�es, which are present almost all water supplies
to some extent, are:
● Heavy metals such as Fe, Cu, Mn
● Calcium & magnesium (hardness)
● Aluminium & chlorine
● Miscellaneous anions (sulfide, fluoride)
● Sediment clay , suspended ma韕�er
● Acidity, alkalinity
● Oil & grease
● Dissolved solids
Poor water quality can affect batch and con韴�nuous dyeing processes. Dyeing defects due to water contamina韴�on include inconsistent
shade, streaky dyeing, filtering, resist, poor washing off and poor fastness.
The chemical method of es韴�ma韴�ng the purity of a dyestuff involves either a volumetric or a gravimetric procedure. The purity of
azo dyes (direct and acid dyes) can be accurately determined by 韴�tra韴�on with standard 韴�tanous chloride solu韴�on. A simple gravimetric
method of es韴�ma韴�ng the purity of naphthol has been published by ISI.
.
Indigosol dyestuff can be gravimetrically es韴�mated by using sodium nitrite and dilute sulphuric acid. A simple volumetric method for
es韴�ma韴�ng the purity of reac韴�ve dyestuff has been published. In this method, a known weight of dyestuff is completely hydrolysed with
caus韴�c soda by refluxing it for 6 hour. The alkali consump韴�on is determined by poten韴�ometric 韴�tra韴�on method and the purity of the
dyestuff is es韴�mated. Higher is the alkali consump韴�on more is the purity of the product.
3.2.1.2.2. Colorimetric es韴�ma韴�on:
In the colorimetric method, the purity of dyestuff is determined by measuring the op韴�cal density (absorbance) of a dye solu韴�on of
known concentra韴�on, using a colorimeter or a spectrophotometer. A prac韴�cal method of assessing the concentra韴�on of dyestuff in a
solu韴�on is to compare its absorbance with that of a standard dyestuff. However determina韴�on of the calibra韴�on curve of absorbance
against concentra韴�on of the standard dye will enable direct reading of the concentra韴�on of the dyestuff under test.
For such measurement appropriate solvent and addi韴�ves must be used for the prepara韴�on.
Addi韴�ves used in dissolving dyes:
Dye class Solu韴�on
Direct, basic and acid Ace韴�c acid: 2ml/l
Metal complex Ammonia (sp. gr. 0.88): 2ml/l
Reac韴�ve Pyridine: Water, 25:75
Disperse Acetone: Water, 75:25
Vat o‐chlorophenol
3.2.1.2.3. 3.2.1.3. Dye pas韴�ng:
Paste‐up of dye can have substan韴�al effect in terms of shade repeats as well as specific defects such as dye spots. Therefore dye
paste‐up should adhere carefully to manufacture recommenda韴�ons. Colour pas韴�ng in small water and then addi韴�on of water is a good
prac韴�ce. When large amount of dyestuff to be used it can be dissolved in installment.
The main quality criteria for process water in order to achieve good dyeing/ tex韴�le processing performance are
● Neutral ini韴�al pH : the ideal range is 6‐7
● Low hardness i.e. elimina韴�on of alkaline earth metal salts. Ideally, it should be less than 3 degrees German total hardness
(approximately 50ppm).
● Bicarbonate content should be as low as possible. This needs to be checked and the alkali condi韴�ons need to correct in order to
achieve a pH sufficient to dye fixa韴�on (more alkali to correct for bicarbonate buffering power which would otherwise keep pH too
low and insufficient speed of fixa韴�on).
● Chlorine content should be as low as possible. This can be an issue with municipal water in some areas. Dyes par韴�cularly dioxane
blue chromophores are sensi韴�ve to chlorine.
● Metal content e.g. Fe and Cu have impact on certain metal complex dyes. Red chromophores o韖�en turn more bluish in presence
of copper ions
● Color of process water is an indicator of presence of other impuri韴�es in water e.g. iron salts.
3.2.4. Fabric parameters:
Many impuri韴�es can be introduced into the dyeing system by cellulose fiber itself e.g. hardness, reducing agents, metal ions, etc. It is
advisable to compare the fiber used in preliminary lab trials and the one used for bulk trials.
Carry over and lack of neutraliza韴�on of pretreatment chemicals‐ these results due to inadequate neutraliza韴�on of alkali (internal fiber pH)
and peroxide on fiber. Both have major impact on dye yield due to premature dye hydrolysis.
Carry over of thiosulphate‐based peroxide quenchers can also have a serious nega韴�ve impact on yield of reac韴�ve dyes. Enzymes based
products are be韕�er in this respect.7‐9
3.2.5. Liquor Ra韴�o:
This is the most common cause of poor reproducibility. In most of the dye houses chemical addi韴�ons are based on data provided by
machinery manu8facturer, on the physical dimensions of the dyeing vessel or on liquor level indica韴�ons on dyeing machine itself.
Experience shows that these liquor indica韴�on are erroneous (generally upto 25% as compared to actual liquor ra韴�o) since liquor in dead
volume in circula韴�on tubes, heat exchanger, expansion tanks, etc., is o韖�en not taken into considera韴�on. Also, wet pretreated fabric content
vs. measurements with water alone lead to wrong assump韴�ons.
An error in liquor ra韴�o (e.g. higher than an韴�cipated), results in wrong salt concentra韴�on (less than required resul韴�ng in lower
fixa韴�on of a lower exhausted amount of dye). These cumula韴�ve effects result in poor reproducibility leading to shade correc韴�ons.
3.2.7. Miscellaneous factors:
Certain other factors can affect the RFT performances are as
3.2.7.1. Hygroscopicity of dye commercial form:
All powder commercial dye formula韴�ons, including reac韴�ve dyes, are hygroscopic, and therefore, when exposed to humid air (due to
incorrect storage condi韴�ons), absorb upto 20% moisture per weight of dye. This absorp韴�on will start on the exposed top layers of the
container, leading to different, unreliable color strength of dye samples. Sampling of bulk dyeing, soaping off, condi韴�oning and finishing (or
not) of the sample taken at the end of fixa韴�on phase can also impact RFT performance.
3.2.7.2. Condi韴�oning:
Condi韴�oning is cri韴�cal, an over dried sample can appear to be lacking 20% yellow and 10‐15% red compared to fully condi韴�oned
sample. Many wrong shading addi韴�ons are based on poorly condi韴�oned sample bits.
It is important to compare like with like and therefore if compared to a finished standard, the sample bit should also undergo similar
finishing.
3.2.7.3. Residual pH:
Residual pH of the dry dyed fabric can impact the final shade. Most red chromophores for example give a slightly more bluish shade
if the alkali has not been properly washed off and if cellulose pH remains a trifle too alkaline. It is some韴�mes advisable to add minute
quan韴�韴�es of a weak acid in final rinsing bath of washing off process.
3.2.7.4. Photochromy:
This is quite frequent in Khaki and earth tones, containing best selling golden yellow reac韴�ve chromophores. Finishing, moisture and
pH condi韴�ons affect photochromy.
3.2.7.5. Thermochromy:
Many dyed samples show a slightly different shade immediately a韖�er drying (or any other hot treatment), recovering progressively
their final permanent shade.
SUPER CRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE DYEING
Supercri韴�cal carbon dioxide has been tried in different areas of tex韴�le treatments and has very high poten韴�al because this dyeing medium
completely avoids water pollu韴�on and use of conven韴�onal auxiliaries in dyeing as well as a韖�er treatments. The drying a韖�er dyeing is also
not required. The CO2 dyeing technology is now in its way to become an industrial applica韴�on. Hence it is a new technologically profitable
process.10‐17
Supercri韴�cal Fluid
Supercri韴�cal fluids are advantages in tex韴�le processing as they combine the valuable proper韴�es of both gas and liquid. The solva韴�ng
power of supercri韴�cal fluid is propor韴�onal to its density, whereas its viscosity is comparable to that of a normal gas. Such a combina韴�on
leads to highly remarkable penetra韴�on proper韴�es. The increased power of solva韴�on with the increase in density is desirable in the dyeing
process as it has a decisive effect on the dissolu韴�on of disperse dye in the supercri韴�cal carbon dioxide medium.
Further increases in pressure, for example, will greatly increase the dielectric constant of such system, thus impar韴�ng dissolving
powers even to a system that under normal condi韴�on of p and T has almost none (Figure 2).
The cri韴�cal values of T and p for some selected compounds and typical proper韴�es of supercri韴�cal fluids are compared to those of
gases and liquids in Table 1.
Reasons for the Preference of Carbon Dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is the best choice .It is non‐toxic, it is used in the food and beverage industry, it is nonflammable, it is supplied in large
amounts either from combus韴�on processes or volcanic sources without the need of producing new gas and it can be recycled in a closed
system.
Carbon dioxide is frequently used as a solvent because of its special and unique proper韴�es: ‐
● Virtually inexhaus韴�ble resources (atmosphere, combus韴�on processes, natural geologic deposits).
● Since carbon dioxide is a cons韴�tuent of natural metabolic processes occurring in the biosphere it is consumed by assimila韴�on and
is returned to the natural circuit by dissimila韴�on .It is not only biodegradable as nutrient promo韴�ng the growth of plants, but is an
essen韴�al element of natural processes.
● Carbon dioxide does not affect the edibility of foodstuffs and will only have toxic effects at extremely high concentra韴�ons.
● It is produced on the commercial scale and is readily available together with the necessary logis韴�cs.
Concepts for Dyeing Equipment Using Supercri韴�cal Fluids:
A prospec韴�ve dyeing apparatus for supercri韴�cal liquors, a plant which can be variated to meet special criteria. The machine is an
extrac韴�on plant modified for processing with the supercri韴�cal fluids. In contrasts to conven韴�onal extrac韴�on plants the dyestuff are applied
to the substrate instead of being removed, i.e. the fluid will have to be loaded with dyestuff prior to coming in contact with the goods to be
dyed. This can be done in two manners: The dyestuff is filled into the pressure vessel in defined quan韴�韴�es; the dyestuff is filled into an
addi韴�onal small autoclave in the desired (surplus) quan韴�ty regula韴�ng the carbon dioxide content via pressure, temperature and/or flow
control instruments. The absorp韴�on of the dyestuff by the fibre, i.e. the diffusion into the inner parts of the fibre, has to meet high
levelness standards.
The necessary convec韴�on of the liquor can be achieved by an agitator within the dyeing autoclave or by moving the substrate.
Another op韴�on is to penetrate the goods, either by the circula韴�on of the liquor or by u韴�lizing the current produced by con韴�nuous
replenishment of carbon dioxide. In the la韕�er case, the flow of replenished carbon dioxide will have to be con韴�nuously loaded with
dyestuff. Residues of dyestuff or fiber admixtures to be extracted prior to dyeing will be collected in a conven韴�onal separator. The
separa韴�on of phase will in this case be ini韴�ated by expansion or by raising the temperature.
Dyeing Apparatus:
An apparatus for dyeing in supercri韴�cal carbon dioxide is consists of a temperature controller, a vessel heater which surrounds the
vessel, a stainless steel dyeing vessel of 50ml capacity (with a quick release cap), a manometer, a Varex HPLC carbon dioxide pump and a
cooler for cooling the head of the carbon dioxide pump. The apparatus was pressure‐tested for use up to 350 bars and 100 degree Celsius.
A side arm connects the top and the bo韕�om of the cell outside the heater to allow the supercri韴�cal carbon dioxide to circulate by thermal
convec韴�on.
Principle ‐ Dyeing Procedure:
The sample to be dyed (usually 10‐25 cm) is wrapped around a perforated stainless steel tube and mounted inside the autoclave (1)
around the s韴�rrer (as shown in figure). The autoclave is then closed, evacuated and cooled with ice water. Liquid carbon dioxide (8) is filled
into the autoclave in condensed form, weighing the filled‐in quan韴�ty. As soon as the autoclave has reached room temperature again, poly
glycol, a heat carrier, is added to the tempering bath. The pressure rises to 250 bars within about 7 minutes, an isochoric process achieved
by hea韴�ng the glycol bath to 130 C. Following a dye 韴�me of 10 minutes the pressure within the autoclave is reduced to atmospheric
temperature within about 2‐3 minutes, the carbon dioxide being routed through a separa韴�ng vessel in order to recuperate precipitated
residual dye stuff. Dyestuff order is placed in the bo韕�om of the vessel; the apparatus is sealed, purged with gaseous carbon dioxide, and
preheated. When it reaches working temperature, carbon dioxide is isothermally compressed to the chosen working pressure under
constant s韴�rring. Pressure is maintained for a dyeing period of 0‐60 minutes and a韖�er wards released.
Procedure for SC‐CO2 Fabric Dyeing:
The fabric sample to be dyed (size= 10 to 25cm) is wrapped around a perforated stainless steel tube and mounted inside the auto
clave around the s韴�rrer. Dyestuff without auxiliary chemicals was placed on the bo韕�om of the vessel and closed & purged with gaseous
CO2 and preheated. On reaching working temperature CO2 was compressed to the working pressure under constant s韴�rring. Pressure
maintained during the dyeing period of 0 to 60 min and a韖�erwards the fabric is rinsed with acetone to remove residual dyestuff. Technical
parameters are given in Table 2.
Procedure for Yarn Packages:
The process developed for the yarn package dyeing as shown in table 3. Dyeing temperatures and volume flow rates are similar with
conven韴�onal dyeing while actual 韴�me required is typically less.
Advantages of Dyeing in Supercri韴�cal Carbon Dioxide:
The possible advantages to be claimed of this process are:
● Contaminated waste water streams are not produced.
● Dispersants are not required to solubilise a disperse dye in water.
● Solubili韴�es are controllable by pressure, allowing control of the dyeing intensity and colour.
● Diffusivi韴�es in the fluid are higher, making mass transfer in the fluid faster. Take up of carbon dioxide by the polymer fibre causes it
to swell slightly giving faster diffusion within the polymer.
● Viscosi韴�es are lower making the circula韴�on of the dye solu韴�ons easier.
● Penetra韴�on of voids between fibres is fast because of the absence of the surface tension and the miscibility of air with carbon
dioxide under pressure.
● No prepara韴�on of processing water (by desal韴�ng).
● No effluents.
Low energy consump韴�on for hea韴�ng up the liquor.
Energy preserva韴�on because drying processes are no longer required (conven韴�onal dyeing processes consume about 3,800 kJ per Kg
of water evaporated).
No air pollu韴�on due to recycling of the carbon dioxide (the gas is not contaminated by the processes).
Substan韴�ally shorter dyeing 韴�mes.
Environmentally acceptable formula韴�ons of dyestuff ‐ no dispersants or adulterants are necessary.
No chemicals such as leveling agents, pH regula韴�ons etc. have to be added.
Non‐exhausted dyestuff is recuperated in the form of a powder‐no waste.
Reduc韴�ve a韖�er treatments can be dispensed with, i.e. a whole processing step consuming water and energy can be eliminated.
No need for auxiliary agents, disposing agents, adulterants, etc.
For polyester, no reduc韴�on clearing is needed.
Very less dyeing 韴�me.
Higher diffusion coefficients lead to higher extrac韴�on or reac韴�on rates.
Manipula韴�on of pressure and temperature parameters results in be韕�er selec韴�vity.
Easy separa韴�on eliminates mul韴�ple processing or post clean‐up steps.
Demerits Sc‐Co2 for Commercializa韴�on:
Dyeing of mul韴�ple packages in the same bath.
High pressures required for dye solubility
Impact of dyeing machine weight is related to circula韴�on
During polyester dyeing ,the trimer is produced .this is removed using aqueous cleaning ,waterless SC‐CO2 as a problem to eliminate.
There is li韕�le data about dyestuff solubility in SC‐CO2. Thus research work is under progress to eliminate these demerits .The SC‐
CO2 dyeing process is also known as rapid dyeing.
Future Prospects of Super Cri韴�cal Carbon Dioxide System:
The inves韴�ga韴�on to study possibili韴�es of using supercri韴�cal system for tex韴�le finishing processes have in the first instance been
performed with the aim of finding an ecologically acceptable alterna韴�ve to conven韴�onal high‐temperature dyeing of polyester, as such
media are par韴�cularly suited for dyeing with disperse dye stuffs. Moreover, it turned out that, besides polyester, number of other fiber
material can be dyed with disperse dye stuffs.
Since autoclaves required for " supercri韴�cal dyeing processes ", i.e. equipment permi韑�ng opera韴�on at the require temperature and
pressures with holding capaci韴�es up to one cu.m., are considered state of the art and the employed for high pressure extrac韴�on processes,
many step towards an industrial‐scale applica韴�on in tex韴�le plant already being accomplished. The overwhelming interna韴�onal resonance
gained by the new method has emphasized the high, existen韴�al significance of problem met with the treatment of waste waters in the
tex韴�le finishing industries. Esp. smaller units allowing short se韑�ng‐up and dyeing 韴�mes, i.e. assuring the high degree of flexibility, were in
the center of interest. Other field for applica韴�on of supercri韴�cal fluid system such as extrac韴�on processes is at present being considered,
for instance prepara韴�on plants for the removal of spinning oils etc. In other words the use of carbon dioxide in tex韴�le finishing plants is by
no means limited to the dyeing of synthe韴�c fibres. It might, for instance be possible to use supercri韴�cal ammonia for mercerizing opera韴�on,
or super cri韴�cal carbon dioxide could be employed to replace chlorinated hydrocarbons in dry cleaning processes.
CONCLUSION:
Today world is a compe韴�韴�ve environment and survival of the fi韕�est becomes a rule for the game. There is a clear indica韴�on that the
Indian tex韴�le and apparel industry is facing severe compe韴�韴�on. The market is already overcrowded with suppliers and price pressures will
intensify. It is well known that only those who are responsive to change will survive. The key to success in this marketplace is quality and
affordability. Along with Quality and affordability, the implementa韴�on of the new concepts. The tex韴�le industry has to strive and put in
some real work towards fulfilling such expecta韴�ons.
REFERENCES:
1. Accessed from www.epa.gov/techinfo/facts/solid‐cs.html
2. Accessed from www.emcentre.com/tex韴�le/Rprocessinnov.html
3. Accessed from www.cpp.org/energyconserva韴�ontex韴�le.html
4. Dixit M.D., Colourage, 44(4), 69, (1997).
5. Thiry M.C., Tex韴�le Chemists and Colourist and American Dyestuff Reporter, 32(10), 13, (2000).
6. Downing C., Interna韴�onal Dyer, 184(7), 28, (1999)
7. Rods R., Colourage, Special Issue SDC Conf, 2004, 39‐42.
8. Ravichandran P., Colourage, 2004, LI 12, 33‐40.
9. Shenai V.A., Chemistry of dyes and principal of dyeing, 2004, 464.
10. S. K. Malik, Harmandeep Kaur, Man‐Made Tex韴�les in India, 2005, Jan, 27‐32
11. K. Sawada, T. Takagi, J. H. Jun, M. Ueda, D. M. Lewis, Coloura韴�on Technology, (118) 2002, 233.
12. Yukata Kawahara, Takeshi Kikutani, Santoshi Ogawa, Coloura韴�on Technology, (116) 2000, 403.
13. S.K. Liao, Y.C. Ho, P.S. Change, JSDC, 116, 2000, 403.
14. Kam Holme, Interna韴�onal Dyer, 1999,184(5) 27‐30.
15. N. Sekar, Colourage , 1999,46(2) 31‐32.
16. Wolfgang Saus, Dierk Kni韕�el, Eckhard Schollmeyer, Tex韴�le‐Praxis‐Interna韴�onal 1993,48 (1) 32‐33 & XXI‐XXIV
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Heat energy can be recovered from the hot wastewater streams origina韴�ng from different processes by installing heat exchanger between
the wastewater and fresh water to be used for different process. The capacity of the heat exchanger will vary with the discharge of the
machine. The temperature rose of the cold water would be in the range 40‐50oC. This measure will reduce steam consump韴�on for hea韴�ng
the baths. Different types of heat exchangers are available and its choice depends on number of factors.
Steam condensate discharges are hot and clean water streams. These streams can be used as boiler feed water or for prepara韴�on of dye
baths. These op韴�ons not only reduce water consump韴�on and wastewater quan韴�韴�es, but also results into substan韴�al energy savings.
Energy loss through leakages and improper maintenance:
In most of the tex韴�le industries it was found that there are number of pipelines and equipment from where steam, steam condensate and
hot water is lost through leakages. It is difficult to asses the quality of leakages but obvious that leakage of hot water and steam results in
substan韴�al energy loss. Generally the condi韴�on of piping and insula韴�on is not up to the standard due to the fact that preven韴�ve
maintenance is not being given due considera韴�on. One of the reasons for this negligence may be due to produc韴�on load in which machine
shut sown for repair is difficult.
Steam usage is generally not op韴�mum, reasons for excess usage and wastage of steam are the unnecessary supply of steam to the bath
even a韖�er a韕�aining required temperature. Steam traps are generally malfunc韴�oning, resul韴�ng into escape of steam along with steam
condensate. At most of the places, out of order steam traps are disconnected, rather being repaired or replaced. Corroded pipes and
valves, as a result of improper maintenance, also contribute in steam and hot water loss. Steam control valves are generally not found in
the machines and old machines are not equipped with energy controllers.
Preven韴�ve maintenance should be given due considera韴�on. Rou韴�ne maintenance schedule should be maintained and followed properly.
Workers should be aware of the fact that substan韴�al money is lost through leakages and improper maintenance prac韴�ces.
Energy loss through lack of insula韴�on on pipelines and machines:
Most of steam, steam condensate and hot water carrying pipelines are not equipped with proper insula韴�on. Insula韴�on found to be eroded
at various places because of improper maintenance and upkeep. Machines conduc韴�ng reac韴�ons, washing and drying at hot states
especially desizing, bleaching, jiggers and dryers are mostly not insulated, that cause heat dissipa韴�on to ambient air. The quan韴�ty of heat
dissipa韴�on is the func韴�on of the temperature difference between inside hot machine and outside cold air and the surface area of the
machine. However, proper insula韴�on provides resistance to convec韴�onal heat transfer with the advantage of less steam and fuel
consump韴�on in hea韴�ng contents up to the required temperature.
A saving of the order of 5‐10 % of the energy consumed for steam produc韴�on can result from this measure. Further this measure will
improve the occupa韴�onal atmosphere, especially during the hot weather, and also increase the safety of the workers, due to covering of
the otherwise hot surfaces.
Energy loss through flue gases and hot air:
Boiler flue gases contain substan韴�al heat energy. This energy can be u韴�lized to preheat the boiler feed water through economizer
but at present in most of the industries it is not being u韴�lized. Some industries installed economizer but could not last, may be because of
improper material of construc韴�on or faulty design. Hot air, from different dryers, is also wasted.
The thermal energy, present in the boiler off‐gas stream, can be used to preheat the boiler feed water. Savings in boiler fuel
consump韴�on can amount to about 5%. Economizer can be boiler stack in which hot flue gases will preheat boiler feed water.
Energy loss through singeing machine:
Singeing opera韴�on is employed to destroy singes and tu韖�s on the surface of the fabric, by its direct exposure to the flame, for a very short
韴�me. Fabrics of varying widths are processed in the tex韴�le industry. Generally a single mul韴�ple port full‐width burner is provided in the
singeing machine, which results into unnecessary wastage of energy, when fabric of width shorter that that of the singeing flame is being
processed.
The arrangement required would be the replacement of the single full width burner with a series of burners of shorter widths
placed in one row, each with separate fuel gas supply. The number of burners to be fired, during singeing opera韴�on, would be according to
the width of the fabric.
Use of non‐conven韴�onal energy sources:
The different alterna韴�ve renewable resources of energy are biomass, geothermal energy, 韴�dal energy, wind energy and solar energy.
Out of these energy sources, solar energy is abundant and is inexhaus韴�ble, in fact, fossil fuel, viz. coal, oil, and natural gas owe to their
origin to these energy sources. Indias geographical loca韴�on favors unlimited and uninterrupted trapping of solar energy and it is the
desirable energy available in the environment.
The plants serve as the most abundant renewable raw material in nature for produc韴�on of bio‐gas, as they are rich in carbohydrates.
The gas can be produced and consumed at the place of produc韴�on and hence cost of transporta韴�on of raw material and gaseous product
is eliminated. The technology is simple and easy to operate, with virtually very li韕�le maintenance cost. There will not be any problem of air
pollu韴�on. In short, nothing is wasted and there is no effluent.2‐5
Steam genera韴�on and its effec韴�ve distribu韴�on:
Steam has become the first source of heat in dye house. The only way to absorb all the heat from the steam is to inject source of
heat in dye bath. Heat exchanger of coil, tube or plate type, suitably closed by a steam trap to permit the drainage of condensed steam, are
now a days installed in a machine itself. Most of the energy goes for genera韴�on of steam and produc韴�on of power. The efficiency of
conversa韴�on of fuel into steam is of the order of 75% and that of electricity about 30%.
The steam generated from the boiler has to be distributed through proper insulated pipelines wherever required. The loss due to
the leakage have to be ven韴�lated properly to avoid the condensing of the steam on the roofs and the machines like jigger and winches may
also be covered with covers.
Drying:
Drying is a thermal energy consuming process required at different stages in wet processing. Drying opera韴�on is done by different
techniques.
Cylinder drying can be made more effec韴�vely by use of steel cylinders and reducing water contents by vacuum extrac韴�on.
Hot air stenter, if used by preven韴�ng fresh air leakage, running exhaust only when necessary, keeping circula韴�on of air effec韴�ve and
avoiding idle running can save energy.
Infrared and RF‐drying are also effec韴�ve due to their specific effects.
Microwaves are more energy efficient saving in both capital and opera韴�ng cost. Microwaves affect polar molecules (such as water)
and in a tex韴�le material the substrate is generally non polar, hence water is evaporated without affec韴�ng the substrate by IMS
(Industrial Microwave System).4‐5.
Process modifica韴�on:
Bleaching and Finishing:
Combined preparatory processes save 韴�me as well as energy.
If the fabric is pretreated by subjec韴�ng grey one to steam purging opera韴�on, we韕�ability improves, which can be followed by single
step desizing, scouring and bleaching.
Explore scope for wet‐on‐wet mercerising and wet‐on‐wet finishing by using vacuum extractor.
Run two or more ends either side‐by‐side or superimposed on machine like shearing, cropping, sizing, chainless merceriser, cylinder
drying rages and calendars, etc.
Combined drying and heat se韑�ng or op韴�cal brightening and heat se韑�ng.
Dyeing and Finishing:
Dyeing of blends in single bath.
Combined dyeing and finishing process.
Solvent assisted dyeing, supercri韴�cal carbon dioxide as a medium of dyeing.
Ultrasonic and UV energy for dyeing.
Cold pad bath opera韴�ons wherever possible.
Elimina韴�ng intermediate drying opera韴�on between beam dyeing of polyester and jigger dyeing of cellulose in blends.
Resort to drying cum curing of pigment prints
Energy audit
UKs energy efficiency best prac韴�ce programmes (EEBPP) show that energy cost can be reduced by 10% without any investments,
simply by improving energy management prac韴�ces. The first logical step towards reducing energy cost is to understand how energy is
consumed and then comparing the energy of specific site or process against some established industry norms.
One of most common approaches is to calculate the quality of energy used to produce a unit of product. This is known as specific
energy consump韴�on (SEC).
Toray Tex韴�les Ltd. ini韴�ated a major energy management programme along with ac韴�vi韴�es like staff mo韴�va韴�on, capital investment
programme, training, good house keeping and modern management technique. The results of this programme found very impressive as
their annual energy consump韴�on reduced by 27%. Nearly half the saving were made through no cost or low cost good house keeping
prac韴�ces.6
Water usage in tex韴�le industry:
Water is used extensively throughout processing opera韴�ons. Almost all dyes, specialty chemicals, and finishing chemicals are applied to
tex韴�le substrates from water baths. In addi韴�on, most fabric prepara韴�on steps, including desizing, scouring, bleaching, and mercerizing, use
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aqueous systems.
q=07lrR3Iex49OSCeye/+WWvpzc1HnGUcBP5vdLS54LPVq4tCkEXYZAmO0T0UoqJtDN6DE2BpEBOZ9DUx5ez38NbWDm7c78enKMPprKv2H57gBIJBDBUJpMYmiKmVWjNeaS/HNxc1GPOW0QMhFkx1XrAKmB
Water consump韴�on pa韕�ern in tex韴�le mills: (h韕�ps://castbox.fm/channel/Fibre2Fashion‐id2495727?country=in)
The requirement for different purposes in a tex韴�le mill can be generalized as below:
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Purpose Water Consump韴�on %
Steam produc韴�on 5
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Cooling water 6
Deminerialised water for 8
specific purposes
Wet process 72
Sanitary use 8
Fire figh韴�ng, etc. 1
Water Conserva韴�on and Recycle:
Water is expensive to buy, treat & dispose and as it is becoming a scarce commodity, sustainable developments of the tex韴�le industry
needs recycling of waste water generated and conserva韴�on of water to reduce the water requirements and also dependency on other
water sources. As the cost of water supplied to industry keeps increasing, recycling becomes more important. Many tex韴�le industries in
water scarce areas are installing water recycle plants.
Reduc韴�on in waste water volume:
Proper water management in mills can achieve this of the water used for various opera韴�ons, a large por韴�on is consumed in wet processing.
Water required for wet processing varies from mill to mill and depends upon:
● Sources of water
● Availability of water
● Quality and quan韴�ty of fabric processed
● Processing sequence adopted
● Number of washings in processing sequence
● Type of processing machinery used
Techniques of conserva韴�on:
Numerous methods have been developed to conserve water at tex韴�le mills. The sec韴�ons below discuss some of the techniques applicable
to a wide variety of firms.
Counter‐current washing:
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For both water and energy savings, counter‐current washing is employed frequently on con韴�nuous prepara韴�on and dye ranges. Clean
Sponsored water enters at the final wash box and flows counter to the movement of the fabric through the wash boxes. Thus, when the fabric enters
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the actual wash process, the most contaminated wash water contacts it first, and, later, the cleanest water contacts the cleanest fabric.
q=07lrR3Iex49OSCeye/+WWvpzc1HnGUcBP5vdLS54LPVq4tCkEXYZAmO0T0UoqJtDN6DE2BpEBOZ9DUx5ez38NbWDm7c78enKMPprKv2H57gBIJBDBUJpMYmiKmVWjNeaS/HNxc1GPOW0QMhFkx1XrAKmB
(h韕�ps://castbox.fm/channel/Fibre2Fashion‐id2495727?country=in)
This method of water reuse is contrary to the tradi韴�onal method of providing clean water at every stage of the wash cycle. Water and
energy savings are related to the number of boxes provided with the counterflow. Counter‐current washing can be applied at desize
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washers, scour washers, mercerizing washers, bleach washers, dye ranges, and printhouse soaper ranges.
Use of standing bath:
1XCVNzbM6dODMYDb/DlLNvk0oRGrKT9HltIrDjNf+BOLhnVHM27kivvcKTv4JQKo0J4z41MvFzwPfIf94XKjjZVpxIeDBxS86RNpvlcMlaX15韕�DatrK1XYbldlKlqsji8oktQJTPVojoC6isQBL95OObX0IG3rGUdWYjteKm1cfJ8rgroY7YcUqIpgYoDCt1rXlUtdULFVRFUF7L4/)
Use of standing bath technique in hydrogen peroxide bleaching of co韕�on is done by replenishing the bath with equivalent peroxide
concentra韴�on and maintains the pH. The level of replenishment of the stabilizer was varied upto 70 % of the ini韴�al value. The standing
bath technique can also be employed for polyester and nylon dye bath reuse.
Use of low material to liquor ra韴�o systems:
At least equipments have the control thought to reduce the machine liquor ra韴�o whether in bleaching/scouring/dyeing finishing etc
and the development in the area con韴�nues.
Reuse of final rinse water from dyeing for dye bath make‐up:
The rinse water from the final rinse in a batch dyeing opera韴�on is fairly clean and can be used directly for further rinsing or to make
up subsequent dye baths. Several woven fabric and carpet mills use this rinse water for dye bath make‐up
Reuse of soaper wastewater:
The colored wastewater from the soaping opera韴�on can be reused at the backgrey washer, which does not require water of a very
high quality. Alterna韴�vely, the wastewater can be used for cleaning floors and equipment in the print and color shop.
Reuse of scouring rinses for desizing:
The rinse water from the scouring opera韴�on is adequate for reuse in other processes such as desizing that do not require water of
an extremely high quality. This reuse is par韴�cularly true with scouring wastes from synthe韴�c or co韕�on/synthe韴�c blend fabrics. Scouring
rinses may, in certain cases, also be reused to wash floors and equipment.
Reuse of mercerizing or bleach wash water for scouring or desizing:
Mercerizing or bleaching rinse water can be used in scouring and desizing opera韴�ons as long as size recovery is not prac韴�ced.
Generally, the caus韴�c or bleach stream will degrade many size compounds to an extent that they cannot be recovered.
Recycle/Reuse of water jet weaving wastewater:
The jet weaving wastewater can be reused within the jet looms. Alterna韴�vely, it can be reused in the desizing or scouring process,
provided that fabric impuri韴�es and oils are removed by in‐line filters.
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Use of automa韴�c shut‐off valves: Policy (http://www.fibre2fashion.com/cookie/) or can decide to change your browser se韑�ngs any韴�me.
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Sponsored An automa韴�c shut‐off valve set to 韴�me, level, or temperature will control the flow of water into a process unit. One plant es韴�mated
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that a reduc韴�on in water use of up to 20 percent could be achieved with thermally controlled shut‐off valves.
q=07lrR3Iex49OSCeye/+WWvpzc1HnGUcBP5vdLS54LPVq4tCkEXYZAmO0T0UoqJtDN6DE2BpEBOZ9DUx5ez38NbWDm7c78enKMPprKv2H57gBIJBDBUJpMYmiKmVWjNeaS/HNxc1GPOW0QMhFkx1XrAKmB
Use of fow control valves: (h韕�ps://castbox.fm/channel/Fibre2Fashion‐id2495727?country=in)
A flow‐ or pressure‐reduc韴�on valve can significantly reduce the quan韴�ty of water used in a wash or clean‐up step. These valves are
par韴�cularly useful in cleaning areas where operators are not always aware of the need for water conserva韴�on.
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Waterless processing or solvent processing:
1XCVNzbM6dODMYDb/DlLNvk0oRGrKT9HltIrDjNf+BOLhnVHM27kivvcKTv4JQKo0J4z41MvFzwPfIf94XKjjZVpxIeDBxS86RNpvlcMlaX15韕�DatrK1XYbldlKlqsji8oktQJTPVojoC6isQBL95OObX0IG3rGUdWYjteKm1cfJ8rgroY7YcUqIpgYoDCt1rXlUtdULFVRFUF7L4/)
The solvent most commonly preferred was perchloroethylene. This medium was used instead of water in a closed equipments, like a
dry cleaning machine where the solvenmt was later recovered by suc韴�on fromed the fabric or by hydroextrac韴�on. The solvent was reused
again and again.
Use single stage of processing:
Par韴�cularly in the kni韑�ng industries yarns without any sizes are used for making the fabric. Mostly they use, carded yarns. Lot of
cleaning has already taken place in the yarn manufacturing stage. For fabrics kni韕�ed of this type of combined bleaching/scouring and
dyeing process can be adopted to give considerable saving in water. The scouring and bleaching process takes place for 10‐20 minutes and
without draining the bath the dyeing is carried out without any loss of depth of colour value of day. In some cases the finishing process
also can be carried out along with the dying process.
Low add on or foam finishing during the finishing of fabric:
Low add on or foam finishing can be accurately applied by padding mangles. This will effec韴�vely reduces the excess use of water in
finishing process.
Good housekeeping:
A program of maintenance, inspec韴�on, and evalua韴�on of produc韴�on prac韴�ces should be established. Significant reduc韴�ons in water
use can be made by implemen韴�ng the following:
‐ Minimizing leaks and spills,
‐ Maintaining produc韴�on equipment properly,
‐ Iden韴�fying unnecessary washing of both fabric and equipment, and
‐ Training employees on the importance of water conserva韴�on.
Capital and Opera韴�ng costs:
The equipment used in a water conserva韴�on program is rela韴�vely inexpensive, consis韴�ng, in most cases, of valves, piping, small
pumps, and tanks only. The opera韴�ng costs for these systems are generally very low. Rou韴�ne maintenance and, in some cases, electricity
for the pumps, would be the major cost components. In addi韴�on to these direct cost savings, a water conserva韴�on program can reduce the
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capital costs of any required end‐of‐pipe wastewater treatment system, which can cost several thousands of dollars per gallon of flow per
minute. Thus, a substan韴�al reduc韴�on in water flow can produce corresponding savings in treatment water costs.2‐5
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2.4 Solid‐On‐Solid Processing Of Tex韴�les (h韕�ps://castbox.fm/channel/Fibre2Fashion‐id2495727?country=in)
Many tex韴�le manufacturing opera韴�ons such as yarn slashing, dyeing, prin韴�ng, and finishing of fabrics use wet processing
techniques. These techniques involve using an aqueous solu韴�on or bath to apply chemicals to a tex韴�le substrate, fixing the chemicals to
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the fiber, scouring or washing to remove loose chemicals and drying to produce a finished fabric or garment. Hea韴�ng and later evapora韴�ng
water make these wet processes very energy intensive. Industry experts es韴�mate that wet processes use approximately 60% of the energy
consumed in the tex韴�le industry.
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In addi韴�on, shrinking water supplies and increased compe韴�韴�on from residen韴�al and other industrial users in many parts of the
country have prompted tex韴�le manufacturers to develop methods that reduce water and energy consump韴�on.
These conserva韴�on methods reduce the number of washings and dryings between processes and shorten the dura韴�on of those
retained, lower process temperatures, and use solvents that dry more quickly. Several R&D efforts have produced novel energy‐conserving
processes such as foam processing, beck dyeing modifica韴�ons, dye bath reuse, Mach nozzle fabric drying, closed‐cycle tex韴�le dyeing, ink
and film applica韴�ons, and air/vacuum extrac韴�on. Although many of these new processes have been extremely successful in reducing
energy consump韴�on either by reducing the amount of water used or by subs韴�tu韴�ng solvents or air, all s韴�ll require some liquids.
Theore韴�cally, the most energy‐efficient processing methods will use waterless SOS techniques, which completely eliminate the energy‐
intensive drying step. With SOS processing, chemicals are applied directly to the tex韴�le substrate without using water or other solvents,
thus elimina韴�ng the need for energy‐intensive drying. SOS technologies, which are already being used in other industries (e.g., metals), can
be applied to many tex韴�le produc韴�on processes
SOS processes use no extraneous liquids to apply chemicals containing a thermoplas韴�c component are deposited on the substrate
through electrosta韴�c a韕�rac韴�on, and then fixed to the substrate by heat. Thus, SOS technology goes a step beyond the so‐called low‐wet‐
pickup systems (such as foam, film applica韴�ons), which s韴�ll require water or solvent. The SOS approach is widely used in the metals
industry for electrosta韴�c pain韴�ng of electrified automobile body components, coa韴�ng of wires and cables, and prin韴�ng of aluminum cans.
In these processes, resins and colorants are bound together and to the metals during thermal curing.
SOS processing offers several advantages to the tex韴�le industry. In addi韴�on to saving energy and reducing water consump韴�on, SOS
processes can eliminate the need for steam genera韴�on, eliminate effluents, and decrease dwell 韴�mes in the curing oven, thus increasing
process speeds. These changes, which can increase produc韴�vity and reduce costs, can improve the compe韴�韴�ve posi韴�on of the tex韴�le
industry.4
RIGHT FIRST TIME DYEING:
Need of RFT approach:
When one thinks about compe韴�韴�veness in this millennium, wet processed goods must be provided with consistent quality, in large
quan韴�ty, adhering to delivery schedule and with right first 韴�me performance. Tex韴�le wet processing sector is a major consumer of water
and energy. Ever increasing environmental issues and energy cost are forcing towards RFT approach. Tex韴�le wet processing consumes 5‐
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200 lit of water per kg of fabric. When we achieve the target at first 韴�me, it reduces the total consump韴�on of water and energy.
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percentage of RFT is directly propor韴�onal increase in extra cost of the process. RFT approach became the need of the day.
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. (h韕�ps://castbox.fm/channel/Fibre2Fashion‐id2495727?country=in)
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1XCVNzbM6dODMYDb/DlLNvk0oRGrKT9HltIrDjNf+BOLhnVHM27kivvcKTv4JQKo0J4z41MvFzwPfIf94XKjjZVpxIeDBxS86RNpvlcMlaX15韕�DatrK1XYbldlKlqsji8oktQJTPVojoC6isQBL95OObX0IG3rGUdWYjteKm1cfJ8rgroY7YcUqIpgYoDCt1rXlUtdULFVRFUF7L4/)
Factors for Right First Time Dyeing:
3.2.1. Dyestuff factors:
Dyes play an important role in cost compe韴�韴�veness and absolute reproducibility of dyeing. Dyes are the most expensive raw materials of
dyeing. Hence, it is important to maintain the following dyestuff factors.
3.2.1.1. Proper dyestuff selec韴�on
The main criteria behind dyestuff selec韴�on should be
● High quality of dye standardiza韴�on i.e. negligible lot‐to‐lot strength varia韴�on in dyestuff supplies. This nullifies the need for the
check rou韴�ne for each lot as well as shade adjustments and ensures high level of reproducibility.
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● Choice of medium affinity bi‐reac韴�ve dyestuffs‐Bireac韴�ve dyestuffs give a high degree of fixa韴�on (approximately 80%) as against
mono‐reac韴�ve dyes (approximately 60%). This accompanied with the medium affinity of dyes ensures easy wash off thus, fewer
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washing baths. This has an impact on the water, 韴�me and energy savings in cost effec韴�ve produc韴�on. Moreover, the dyes should
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have a proper combina韴�on of reac韴�ve groups in the bireac韴�ve system to achieve ideal and homogeneous applica韴�on proper韴�es.
● Good compa韴�bility of Dyestuffs the dyestuffs used in trichromy should be compa韴�ble i.e. they should have homogeneous affinity
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and reac韴�vity. This is essen韴�al to ensure reproducible results.
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Besides the selec韴�on of dyestuffs, certain process checks are must to monitor the desired performance
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3.2.1.2. Purity of dyestuffs:
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There are several tests that can be rou韴�nely carried out in the dye house to ensure the dye quality and thus reproducible dyeing, they are:
‐
● Chemical methods
● Colorimetric es韴�ma韴�on and
● Laboratory dyeing trials
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