GIS

Assignment – 1

Submitted by :

AMISHA JANGRA
LA/557
MLA, SEM - 1
 1. What is the concept of foundation of remote sensing?
Remote sensing is an art and science of obtaining information about an object or feature
without physically coming in contact with that object or feature. Humans apply remote
sensing in their day-to-day business, through vision, hearing and sense of smell. The data
collected can be of many forms: variations in acoustic wave distributions (e.g., sonar),
variations in force distributions (e.g., gravity meter), variations in electromagnetic energy
distributions (e.g., eye) etc. These remotely collected data through various sensors may be
analyzed to obtain information about the objects or features under investigation. In this
course we will deal with remote sensing through electromagnetic energy sensors only.

Remote sensing provides a means of observing large areas at finer spatial and temporal
frequencies. It finds extensive applications in civil engineering including watershed studies,
hydrological states and fluxes simulation, hydrological modeling, disaster management
services such as flood and drought warning and monitoring, damage assessment in case of
natural calamities, environmental monitoring, urban planning etc.

characteristics of real remote sensing.

Real remote sensing systems employed in general operation and utility have many
shortcomings when compared with an ideal system explained above.

i. Energy Source: The energy sources for real systems are usually non-uniform over
various wavelengths and also vary with time and space. This has major effect on the
passive remote sensing systems. The spectral distribution of reflected sunlight varies
both temporally and spatially. Earth surface materials also emit energy to varying
degrees of efficiency. A real remote sensing system needs calibration for source
characteristics.

ii. The Atmosphere: The atmosphere modifies the spectral distribution and strength of the
energy received or emitted. The effect of atmospheric interaction varies with
the wavelength associated, sensor used and the sensing application. Calibration is
required to eliminate or compensate these atmospheric effects.
iii. The Energy/Matter Interactions at the Earth's Surface: Remote sensing is based on the
principle that each and every material reflects or emits energy in a unique, known way.
However, spectral signatures may be similar for different material types. This makes
differentiation difficult. Also, the knowledge of most of the energy/matter interactions
for earth surface features is either at elementary level or even completely unknown.
iv. The Sensor: Real sensors have fixed limits of spectral sensitivity i.e., they are not
sensitive to all wavelengths. Also, they have limited spatial resolution (efficiency in
recording spatial details). Selection of a sensor requires a trade-off between spatial
resolution and spectral sensitivity. For example, while photographic systems have very
good spatial resolution and poor spectral sensitivity, non-photographic systems have
poor spatial resolution.

v. The Data Handling System: Human intervention is necessary for processing sensor
data; even though machines are also included in data handling. This makes the idea of
real time data handling almost impossible. The amount of data generated by the sensors
far exceeds the data handling capacity.

vi. The Multiple Data Users: The success of any remote sensing mission lies on the user
who ultimately transforms the data into information. This is possible only if the user
understands the problem thoroughly and has a wide knowledge in the data generation.
The user should know how to interpret the data generated and should know how best to
use them.

2. Air photo interpretation

Remote Sensing is considered to be both a science and an 'art' because the image analyst, in the
end, has to interpret the information presented. The process of airphoto or image interpretation
is one of learning to associate shapes and pattern, and other characteristics, with real features or
phenomena on the ground. We are unaccustomed to viewing the ground or the Earth from
anything but an oblique perspective, so that vertical images, which lack scale and depth
produce what is called Visual Dissonance. With practice and as time goes by, we begin to
acquire a better sense of perception.
Object Signature Characteristics
Objects also have visual characteristic which allow us to differentiate them. These
characteristics include size, shape, pattern, tone, association, and texture.

TONE refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects in an image. Generally, tone is the
fundamental element for distinguishing between different targets or features. Variations in tone
also allows the elements of shape, texture, and pattern of objects to be distinguished.
SHAPE refers to the general form, structure, or outline of individual objects. Shape can be a
very distinctive clue for interpretation. Straight edge shapes typically represent urban or
agricultural (field) targets, while natural features, such as forest edges, are generally more
irregular in shape,
SIZE of objects in an image is a function of scale. It is important to assess the size of a target
relative to other objects in a scene to aid in the interpretation of that target.
PATTERN refers to the spatial arrangement of visibly discernible objects. Typically an
orderly repetition of similar tones and textures will produce a distinctive and ultimately
recognizable pattern. Orchards with evenly spaced trees, and urban streets with regularly
spaced houses are good examples of pattern.
TEXTURE refers to the arrangement and frequency of tonal variation in particular areas of an
image. Rough textures would consist of a mottled tone where the grey levels change abruptly
in a small area, whereas smooth textures would have very little tonal variation. In the image,
black spruce is characterized by a darker smoother tone than the surrounding aspen which is
lighter tone and mottled.
SHADOW is also helpful in interpretation as it may provide an idea of the profile and relative
height of a target or targets which may make identification easier.
ASSOCIATION takes into account the relationship between other recognizable objects or
features in proximity to the target of interest. The identification of features that one would
expect to associate with other features may provide information to facilitate identification.

3. (i) Orthophoto
An orthophoto is an aerial photograph that has been geometrically corrected or 'ortho-rectified'
such that the scale of the photograph is uniform and utilised in the same manner as a map. An
ortho-photograph can be used to measure true distances of features within the photograph.
Planimetric corrections have been applied to remove lens distortions and optics, camera angle,
and differences in elevation (topographic relief) through a process of measuring ground control
points to 'tie' the photo to the ground, in a drawing-pin like manner. An orthophoto is an
accurate representation of the Earth' s surface. Orthophotos have the benefits of high detail,
timely coverage combined with the benefits of a map including uniform scale and true
geometry.
(ii) Type of aerial photograph
The two main branches of aerial photography are those known as "oblique aerial photography"
and "vertical aerial photography"; the latter is sometimes also referred to as "overhead aerial
photography".
Oblique aerial photographs are taken from some kind of aircraft whether this is a fixed wing
aeroplane, helicopter or "lighter than air" craft (balloon). The subject is seen at an angle and
therefore the photographs are perceived by the human eye as having depth and definition. As
the name suggests, vertical aerial photographs are taken from directly overhead looking
down vertically and they therefore produce a mostly flat image almost like a map. Both
methods were largely developed for military purposes both also have many civilian uses.
Oblique aerial photography is commonly used for aerial construction progress reports,
archaeology, advertising and promotion work, in the sale of commercial and residential
property and land, in legal disputes or just to produce a stunning aerial photograph for display.
Vertical aerial photographs are most commonly used for mapping projects, for land use or
geomatic surveys, farm evaluation, flood risk assessment and scientific studies.
A growing number of alternative photographic techniques are referring to themselves as aerial
photography when in fact they may more properly be called "elevated photography". These
techniques employ the use of various equipment to raise a camera (and sometimes the
photographer) above the ground to an elevated position. The method used to raise the camera
varies and examples include the use of telescopic poles or masts, kites or even the use of a
portable raised platform on which the photographer can stand.

5. Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry is the science of making measurements from photographs.
The output of photogrammetry is typically a map, drawing, measurement, or a 3D model of
some real-world object or scene. Many of the maps we use today are created with
photogrammetry and photographs taken from aircraft.

Types of Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry can be classified a number of ways but one standard method is to split the
field based on camera location during photography. On this basis we have Aerial
Photogrammetry, and Close-Range Photogrammetry.
In Aerial Photogrammetry the camera is mounted in an aircraft and is usually pointed
vertically towards the ground. Multiple overlapping photos of the ground are taken as the
aircraft flies along a flight path. These photos are processed in a stereo-plotter (an instrument
that lets an operator see two photos at once in a stereo view). These photos are also used in
automated processing for Digital Elevation Model (DEM) creation.
In Close-range Photogrammetry the camera is close to the subject and is typically hand-held
or on a tripod (but can be on a vehicle too). Usually this type of photogrammetry is non-
topographic - that is, the output is not topographic products like terrain models or topographic
maps, but instead drawings, 3D models, measurements and point clouds. Everyday cameras are
used to model and measure buildings, engineering structures, forensic and accident scenes,
mines, earth-works, stock-piles, archaeological artifacts, film sets, etc. This type of
photogrammetry (CRP for short) is also sometimes called Image-Based Modeling.