IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

• Current Density: It is the current per unit area of cross section of an

imaginary plane held normal to the direction of current in the current
carrying conductor. Mathematically,
I
J= , J is the current density, I = current and A is area of cross section.
A
Ampere
Unit is
m2
• Electric Field: The potential drop per unit length of a conductor
gives the electric field that exists across a conductor. Mathematically,

V
E = , E is the electric field, V is the potential and d is the distance.
d
Volt
Unit is
m
• Conductivity: It is the physical property that characterizes the
conducting ability of a material. The inverse of conductivity is
resistivity. Mathematically,
1L
 =   , Unit is ( m ) or siemens/meter (S/m )
−1

R A
Here σ is the electrical conductivity, R is the resistance of the material of
length L and cross section area A.
Multiply both sides by the electric field E.
1  L V
E =  
R A L
V1
=  
R A
I
= 
 A
=J
Therefore, J =  E. This is the point form of the Ohm’s Law.
 MOBILITY AND DRIFT VELOCITY
• The electrons or the carriers in a conductor move in
a random order due to the collisions with the lattice.
• When an electric field is applied across the
conductor, the motion of the electrons is in the
direction opposite of the electric field.
• The velocity of a charge carrier in the steady state
in an applied electric field is called drift velocity. It
is usually denoted as vd and the SI unit is meter/sec.
• The magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by the
charge carrier in a unit field is called mobility. It is
usually denoted as  . Mathematically,  = v .d

E
 FORMATION OF BAND STRUCTURE
IN SOLIDS
• A solid can be imagined to be formed by allowing initially
free atoms to gradually approach one another. As long as the
atoms are separated, the energy level diagram for all the
atoms resembles that of a single atom.
• However, as the atoms approach closer, they are influenced
by neighbouring atoms, i.e. the positive nucleus of one atom
attracts the electrons and repels the positive nucleus of the
adjacent atom. This results closely spaced energy levels
which fall into groups known as energy bands.
• When two atoms come close, one energy level splits into two
energy levels. When three atoms come close, the original
energy level splits into three levels and so on. In general, N
interacting atoms cause a particular energy level to split
into N levels. The individual valence electrons no longer
belong to individual atoms, but to all the nuclei in the solid.
FORMATION OF BANDS IN SOLIDS
• Corresponding to each allowed energy level, an
allowed energy band is formed and the allowed
bands are separated by forbidden bands of energy.
• The degree of splitting depends on
the depth in the atom.
• The inner shells are split to a lesser
degree. They are always completely
filled and do not take part in the
conduction process.
• On the other hand, valence electrons
split more and form wider bands.
The above figure shows the formation of bands in solids, also referred to as the
energy band diagram.
• The upper band is called the conduction band and the lower energy band
is called the valence band.
• The distance between the bottom of the conduction band to the top of the
valence band is called the forbidden gap or energy band gap.
• The conduction band corresponds to the energy values of free electrons,
that have broken the valence bonds, and are free to move in the crystal.
• The valence band corresponds to energies of valence electrons that are
engaged in covalent bonding.
 METALS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS
• A material may be placed in any one of the three
classes – metals, insulators or semiconductors
depending on their energy band structure.

For Insulators
Conduction Band

For Metals (overlap) For Semiconductors

Conduction Band Conduction Band Energy Band gap > 3eV
o v e r l a p
Valence Band
Energy Band gap ~1eV

Valence Band Valence Band

 FERMI ENERGY AND FERMI FACTOR
• The probability that a state of given energy E is occupied by an
electron at a temperature T under thermal equilibrium is given by the
Fermi factor F(E). Mathematically,
1
F (E) =
 E − EF 
1 + exp  
 B 
k T
Here, k B is the Boltzmann constant, EF is the Fermi energy and T is the temperature.

• The variation of Fermi factor with energy at different temperatures is

shown below. At T = 0 K ,
1 1
F (E) = = = 0. For E  EF
 E − EF  1 + exp   
1 + exp  
 kB ( 0 ) 
1 1
F (E) = = = 1. For E  EF
 E − EF  1 + exp  − 
1 + exp  
 kB ( 0 ) 
• Thus at T = 0K, F(E)=1 when E< EF which means all levels
below EF are completely filled and F(E)=0 means all levels
above EF are empty.
• At E= EF and non zero temperature,
1 1 1
F (E) = = = .
 E − EF  1 + exp  0 2
1 + exp  F 
 k B T 

• At absolute zero, electrons occupy energy levels in pairs

starting from the bottom of the band to upper energy levels.
Fermi level is the uppermost filled energy level in a
conductor at 0K.
• Fermi level is the average energy possessed by electrons
participating in conduction in metals at any non-zero
temperature.
 FERMI LEVEL - INSULATOR
• It can be shown that the probability of finding an electron of energy E
above the Fermi level is the same as the probability of not finding an
electron at energy E below the Fermi level. Thus the fermi function
is a symmetric function.
• In an insulator, at 0K or at 300K, the conduction band is empty and
the valence band is full. Using the above symmetric nature of the
fermi function about the fermi level, one can argue that the Fermi
level for an insulator, lies in the middle of the bandgap.
• Thus, Fermi level in an insulator is not an actual energy level. It is
a reference position.
 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
• A semiconductor whose conductivity is only due to
breaking of covalent bonds of electrons in the
valence band is called an intrinsic semiconductor.
• At 0K, the intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an
insulator, because the valence band is completely
filled and the conduction band is completely empty.
• As the temperature is increased, some of the
electrons in the valence are able to “jump” and
make a transition into the conduction band.
• In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of
electrons in the conduction band is always equal
to the number of holes in the valence band.
 CONCEPT OF HOLES
• Whenever a covalent bond is broken in a semiconductor, the
electron from the valence band makes a transition to the
conduction band. The absence of electron in the valence
band is called a positive hole.
• The ‘holes’ refer to the empty energy levels in the otherwise
filled valence band.
• Therefore, conductivity in semiconductors is not only due to
motion of electrons in the conduction band, but also due to
the motion of holes in the valence band.
• The motion of these holes constitutes a ‘hole current’. A
hole is usually denoted by p, while an electron is denoted by
n.
 EFFECTIVE MASS
• A free electron has a well defined mass and obeys
Newtonian mechanics when accelerated by an electric
field.
• The electrons in a crystal are not completely free but
interact with the crystal lattice. As a result, their
behaviour towards external forces is different from that
of a free electron.
• The deviation of electron behaviour in a crystal lattice
from the free electron can be taken into account by
considering the electron to have an altered value of
mass called effective mass ‘m*’.
• The effective mass, m*, depends on the nature of
crystal lattice.
 INTRINSIC CONDUCTIVITY
• For an intrinsic semiconductor, the total
current is due to the drifting of electrons in the
conduction band and the holes in the valence
band. I = Ie + Ih
• The intrinsic conductivity is given by
 = (nee + pe h )
  = eni ( e +  h )
• Here, ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration of
the semiconductor.