UNIVERSITY OF LAHORE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 To understand the
appropriate use and selection
of various engineering
materials in designing and
manufacturing of
components and associated
processes.
 To acquire knowledge related
to the microstructure of
engineering materials
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Composition / Properties
means the chemical make-up
of a material.
Micro Structure means a
description of the
arrangements of atoms or
ions in a material.
Synthesis is the process by
which materials are made
from naturally occurring or
other chemicals.
Processing means different
ways for shaping materials
into useful components or
changing their properties.
Materials
 That’s easy! Look around.
 Our clothes are made of materials, our homes
are made of materials - mostly manufactured.
Glass windows, vinyl siding, metal silverware,
ceramic dishes…
 Materials are used to make or build objects.
 Most things are made from many different
kinds of materials.

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Material Science
 Defined as the study of the properties of
solid materials and how those properties are
determined by a material’s composition and
structure. (VCSU, 2006)
 The ability to change the properties
and/or behavior of a material is what
makes most materials useful and this is
at the heart of materials science! (MSECRC, 2006)

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Material Science
 Example - the dramatic role of iron throughout
the ages is not really the result of it being
"strong". In reality, iron has been important
because we can change its properties by heating
and cooling it.
Material Science and Engineering
 An interdisciplinary study that combines
metallurgy, physics, chemistry, and
engineering to solve real-world problems
with real-world materials in an acceptable
societal and economical manner. (VCSU, 2006)

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Engineering Material
On the basis of the structure-property correlations,
designing or engineering the structure of a material to
produce a pre-determined set of properties
Selection of Engineering Materials
S. No Factors affecting selections of materials
1 Manufacturing processes: Plasticity, Ductility, Machinability, Tooling….

2 Functional requirement: Strength, Hardness, Rigidity, Fatigue, look….

3 Cost considerations: Raw material, Processing, Storage, Inventory, Tax….

4 Operating parameters: Pressure, Temperature, Flow, Environment,….

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Different materials possess different properties
to meet the various requirement for engineering
purposes. The properties of materials which
dictate the selection are:
(i) Tensile Strength: This enables the material to resist the
application of a tensile force. To withstand the tensile force, the
internal structure of the material provides the internal
resistance.
(ii) Hardness: It is the degree of resistance to indentation or
scratching, abrasion and wear. Alloying techniques and heat
treatment help to achieve the same.
(iii) Ductility: This is the property of a metal by virtue of which
it can be drawn into wires or elongated before rupture takes
place. It depends upon the grain size of the metal crystals.

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(iv) Impact Strength: It is the energy required per unit
cross-sectional area to fracture a specimen, i.e., it is a
measure of the response of a material to shock loading.
(v) Wear Resistance: The ability of a material to resist
friction wear under particular conditions, i.e. to maintain
its physical dimensions when in sliding or rolling contact
with a second member.
(vi) Corrosion Resistance: Those metals and alloys which
can withstand the corrosive action of a medium, i.e.
corrosion processes proceed in them at a relatively low
rate are termed corrosion-resistant.
(vii) Density: This is an important factor of a material
where weight and thus the mass is critical, i.e. aircraft
components.

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The characteristics of a material, which are functions of
the temperature, are termed its thermal properties.
(i) Specific Heat (c): It is the heat capacity of a unit mass of a
homogeneous substance. For a homogeneous body, c = C/M,
where C is the heat capacity and M is the mass of the body.
One can also define it as the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of a unit mass of the substance through 1°C.
Its units are cal/g/°C.
(ii) Thermal Conductivity (K): This represents the amount of
heat conducted per unit time through a unit area
perpendicular to the direction of heat conduction when the
temperature gradient across the heat conducting element is
one unit. It is the capability of the material to transmit heat
through it is termed as the thermal conductivity

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(iii) Thermal Expansion: All solids expand on heating and
contract on cooling. Thermal expansion may take place
either as linear, circumferential or cubical. A solid which
expands equally in three mutually orthogonal directions is
termed as thermally isotropic

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(iv) Thermal Resistance (RT): It is the resistance offered by the conductor when heat
flow due to temperature difference between two points of a conductor. It is given by

where H rate of heat flow and Θ1 and Θ 2 are temperatures at two points (°C).
(v) Thermal Diffusivity (h): It is given by

A material having high heat requirement per unit volume possesses a low thermal
diffusivity because more heat must be added to or removed from the material for
effecting a temperature change.
(vi) Thermal Fatigue: This is the mechanical effect of repeated thermal stresses
caused by repeated heating and cooling.

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Conductivity, resistivity, dielectric strength are few important
electrical properties.
 A material which offers little resistance to the passage of an
electric current is said to be a good conductor of electricity.
 The electrical resistance of a material depends on its
dimensions and is given by

Usually, resistivity of a material is mentioned in the

literature and its unit is Ohm-meter
 On the basis of electrical resistivity, material are classified as
Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators

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 Materials in which a state of magnetism can be induced are
termed magnetic materials.
 There are five classes into which magnetic materials may be
grouped:
I. Diamagnetic
II. Paramagnetic
III. Ferromagnetic
IV. Antiferromagnetic and
V. Ferromagnetic.
 Due to excellent magnetic properties along with their high
electrical resistivity these materials today find use in a variety of
applications like magnetic recording tapes, inductors and
transformers, memory elements, microwave devices, etc.

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 These properties includes
 Atomic weight
Chemical  Molecular weight
 Atomic number
Properties  Valency
Chemical composition
Acidity
Alkalinity
Governs the selection of material particularly in chemical plant

These properties includes

Optical  Refractive Index
 Reflectivity
Properties  Absorption coefficient
Affect the light reflection and transmission

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  The properties of engineering materials mainly depends on the
internal arrangement of the atoms on molecules.
 We must note that in the selection of materials, the awareness
regarding differences and similarities between materials is
Chemical extremely important.
 Metals of a single type atom are named pure metals
Properties  Alloys are prepared from mixed types of atoms.
Alloys are classified as binary alloys, composed of two
components, as ternary alloys, composed of three components
or as multi component alloys. Most commercial alloys are multi
component. The composition of an alloy is described by giving the
percentage (either by weight or by atoms) of each element in it.
The movement of atoms under the application of external load
from their original positions in the metal is termed as slip. The
ease with which atoms move or slip in a metal is an indication of
hardness.

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Factors which forms the basis of various systems of
classifications of materials in material science and
engineering are:
 Chemical composition of the material,
 Mode of the occurrence of the material in the
nature,
 Refining and the manufacturing process to which
the material is subjected prior it acquires the
required properties,
 Atomic and crystalline structure of material and
 Industrial and technical use of the material.
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Common engineering materials that falls within
the scope of material engineering may be
classified into one of the following main Four
groups:
 Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) and alloys
 Organic Polymers
 Ceramics
 Composites
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Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) and alloys
Elements are broadly divided into metals and non-
metals based on their properties. Metals are element
substances which readily give up electrons to form
metallic bonds and conduct electricity. Some of the
important basic properties of metals are:
 Metals are usually good electrical and thermal conductors,
 At ordinary temperature metals are usually solid,
 To some extent metals are malleable and ductile,
 The freshly cut surfaces of metals are lustrous,
 When struck metal produce typical sound, and
 Most of the metals form alloys

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Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) and alloys
Metallic materials are classified according to their use in engineering
Pure Metals:
 Generally it is very difficult to obtain pure metal.
 Usually, they are obtained by refining the ore.
 Mostly, pure metals are not of any use to the engineers. However, by specialized
and very expensive techniques, one can obtain pure metals (purity ~ 99.99%),
e.g. aluminum, copper etc.
Alloyed Metals:
 Alloys can be formed by blending two or more metals or at least one being
metal.
 The properties of an alloy can be totally different from its constituent
substances, e.g. 18-8 stainless steel, which contains 18%, chromium and 8%
nickel,
 In low carbon steel, carbon is less than 0.15% and this is extremely tough,
exceedingly ductile and highly resistant to corrosion.

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Ferrous Metals:
Iron is the principal constituent of these ferrous metals. Ferrous alloys contain
significant amount of non-ferrous metals. On the basis of the percentage of carbon
and their alloying elements present, these can be classified into following groups:
(a) Mild Steels: The percentage of carbon in these materials range from 0.15% to
0.25%. These are moderately strong and have good weldability. The production
cost of these materials is also low.
(b) Medium Carbon Steels: These contains carbon between 0.3% to 0.6%. The
strength of these materials is high but their weldability is comparatively less.
(c) High Carbon Steels: These contains carbon varying from 0.65% to 1.5%. These
materials get hard and tough by heat treatment and their weldability is poor.
The steel formed in which carbon content is upto 1.5%, silica upto 0.5%, and
manganese upto 1.5% along with traces of other elements is called plain carbon
steel.
(d) Cast Irons: The carbon content in these substances vary between 2% to 4%.
The cost of production of these substances is quite low and these are used as
ferrous casting alloys.

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 Design for polymer
Classifications of Polymers
 Polymer – low density, good thermal & electrical
insulation, high resistance to most chemicals and ability
to take colours and opacities.
 But non reinforced bulk polymer are mechanically
weaker, lower elastic moduli & high thermal expansion
coefficients.
 Improvement Reinforced variety of fibrous Materials
Composites (PMC).
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 Advantages : ease of manufacturing & versatility.
 Can manufacture into complicated shapes in one step with
little need for further processing or surface treatment.
 Versatility : ability to produce accurate component, with
excellent surface finish and attractive color, at low cost and
high speed
 Application: automotive, electrical & electronic products,
household appliance, toys, container, packaging, textiles
 Basic manufacturing processes for polymer parts are
extrusion, molding, casting and forming of sheet.
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 Thermoset & thermoplastic
 Differ in the degree of their inter-molecular bonding
 Thermoplastic-little cross bonding between polymer,
soften when heated & harden when cooled
 Thermoset-strong intermolecular bonding which
prevents fully cured materials from softening when
heated
 Rubber are similar to plastic in structure and the
difference is largely based on the degree of extensibility
or stretching.
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Figure 1.7 Polymerization occurs when small molecules, represented by the circles, combine to
produce larger molecules, or polymers. The polymer molecules can have a structure that consists
of many chains that are entangled but not connected (thermoplastics) or can form three-
dimensional networks in which chains are cross-linked (thermosets)

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Figure 1.8 Polymers are used Figure 1.9 Integrated circuits Figure 1.10 The X-wing for
in a variety of electronic for computers and other advanced helicopters relies on a
devices, including these electronic devices rely on the material composed of a carbon-
computer chip switches, unique electrical behavior of fiber- reinforced polymer.
where moisture resistance semiconducting materials. (Courtesy of Sikorsky Aircraft
and low conductivity are (Courtesy of Rogers Division—United Technologies
required. (Courtesy of CTS Corporation.) Corporation.)
Corporation.)

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 Design consideration for polymer
Structural part/When the parts is to carry load
 Should remember the strength and stiffness of plastics
vary with temperature.
 Troom data cannot be used in design calculation if the
part will be used at other temp.
 Long term properties cannot be predicted from short
term prop. e.g. Creep behavior
 Engineering plastics are brittle (notched impact strength
< 5.4 J/cm)

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 Classification of Ceramic Materials
 Ceramics – inorganic compounds of one or more metals
with a nonmetallic element. e.g. Al2O3, SiC, Si2N3.
 Crystal structure of ceramic are complex
 They accommodate more than one element of
widely different atomic size.
 The inter-atomic forces generally alternate between
ionic & covalent which leave few free electrons
 Usually heat & electrical insulators.
 Strong ionic & covalent bonds give high hardness,
stiffness & stability (thermal & hostile environment).
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 Structure:
(1) Amorphous or glass-short range order, (2) crystalline (long
range order) & (3) crystalline material bonded by glassy matrix.
 Classification:
Whitewares, glass, refractories, structural clay products &
enamels.
 Characteristics:
 Hard & brittleness,
 low mechanical & thermal shock
 High melting points
 Thermal conductivities between metal & polymer
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 Design consideration for ceramics
 Brittle, low mechanical & thermal shock-need special attention
 Ratio between tensile strength, modulus of rupture &
compressive strength ~ 1:2:10. In design, load ceramic parts in
compression & avoid tensile loading
 Sensitive to stress concentration
 Avoid stress raiser during design.
 Dimensional change take place during drying and firing,
 Large flat surface can cause wrapping
 Large changes in thickness of product can lead to non-uniform
drying and cracking.
 Dimensional tolerances should be generous to avoid machining
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 Design for Composite Materials
 Introduction
 A composite material can be broadly defined as an
assembly of two or more chemically distinct material,
having distinct interface between them and acting to
produce desired set of properties
 Composites – MMC, PMC & CMC.
 The composite constituent divided into two
 Matrix
 Structural constituent / reinforcement
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 Properties / behavior depends on properties, size &
distribution, volume fraction & shape of the constituents, &
the nature and strength of bond between constituents.
 Mostly developed to improve mechanical properties i.e.
strength, stiffness, creep resistance & toughness.
 Three type of composite
 (1) Dispersion-strengthened,
 (2) Reinforcement – continuous & discontinuous
 (3) Laminated (consist more than 2 layers bonded
together).
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 If composite is subjected to tensile loading, important design
criterion is the tensile strength in the loading direction
 Under compression loading, failure by buckling become
important
 Fatigue behavior:
 Steel- show an endurance limit or a stress below which
fatigue does not occur
 Composite-fatigue at low stress level because fibrous
composites may have many crack, which can be growing
simultaneously and propagate through the matrix
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 Designing with composite Materials
 A composite materials usually are more expensive on a cost.
 Used when weight saving is possible & when the relevant
specific property (property/density) of the composite is
better than conventional material
 E.g. specific strength (strength/density), specific elastic
modulus ( elastic modulus/density)
 Efficient use of composite can be achieved by tailoring the
material for the application e.g., to achieve maximum
strength in one direction in a fibrous composite, the fibers
should be well aligned in that direction
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 Functional Classification of Materials
 Aerospace
 Biomedical
 Electronic Materials
 Energy Technology and Environmental Technology
 Magnetic Materials
 Photonic or Optical Materials
 Smart Materials
 Structural Materials

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Figure 1.11
Functional
classification of
materials. Notice
that metals,
plastics, and
ceramics occur in
different
categories. A
limited number
of examples in
each category is
provided

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Figure 1.4 Representative strengths of various categories of materials
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Common engineering materials can be classified into
following four major groups:
 Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) and alloys
 Organic Polymers
 Ceramics
 Composites
They can also classified on the basis of Functional
Requirement and Application.
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