The Characteristics of Action Research I

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The characteristics of action research in music education
Tim Cain
British Journal of Music Education / Volume 25 / Issue 03 / November 2008, pp 283 - 313
DOI: 10.1017/S0265051708008115, Published online: 10 October 2008
Link to this article: http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0265051708008115
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Tim Cain (2008). The characteristics of action research in music education. British Journal of
Music Education, 25, pp 283-313 doi:10.1017/S0265051708008115
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B. J. Music. Ed. 2008 25:3, 283–313 Copyright
C 2008 Cambridge University Press
doi:10.1017/S0265051708008115

Tim Cain
School of Education, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ
[email protected]
This review article discusses the use of action research in music education and its potential
for producing knowledge and improving practice. The discussion is situated in an analysis of
action research studies in music education. The review demonstrates that action research
in music education focuses on a wide variety of subject matter, integrates research and
action, is collaborative, grounded in a body of existing knowledge, and leads to powerful
learning for the participants. However, few action research projects are cyclical, deal with
aspects of social transformation, or broad historical, political or ideological contexts, and
there is little focus on reflexivity. The review suggests that, in order to undertake high-quality
action research, researchers need a good understanding of action research, a focused use of
research literature and a defensible position with regard to data analysis and the generation
of trustworthy findings.
Action research
I first encountered action research as a secondary school teacher, on a part-time diploma

course, during which we were challenged to focus on a series of our lessons in detail.
Reflecting on each lesson, we were required to ask, ‘What did the pupils do?’ ‘What did
they learn?’ ‘How worthwhile was it?’ ‘What did I do?’ ‘What did I learn?’ and ‘What will I
do next?’ I audio-recorded and transcribed lessons on the music of Messiaen, Schoenberg
and Harrison Birtwistle, music which the pupils found difficult to understand, and planned
each lesson in the light of the answers about the previous lesson. Towards the end of
the course we presented summaries of our learning to the whole group; I explained
how I had developed my views of teaching, resulting in a less didactic, more practical
approach.
Later I discovered that this process was a form of action research, typically
conceptualised as research undertaken by practitioners into their own practice, in order to
improve it (Elliott, 1991). Practitioners (such as teachers) decide what is worth researching,
carry out research and thereby become research-informed. Action research is sometimes
contrasted with more traditional methods in which knowledge production is the job of
researchers:
The social sciences position researchers as spectators of other people’s practices, in

the sense that they produce explanations for the practices and influences of others . . .
In action research however the individual practitioner researches their own practice.
(McNiff & Whitehead, 2005: 161)
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Tim Cain
Action research is thus associated with the terms ‘teacher research’ (Lytle & Cochran-Smith,
1992) ‘practitioner research’ (Middlewood et al., 1999) and ‘self-study’ (Loughran, 2005).
It is used in fields where it is helpful to integrate research with action, and is essentially
practical in nature.
Although there are various models of action research, it is possible to generalise about
what it is, how, and why it is done. Its process has been encapsulated in various models,
which are usually variations of a plan – act – evaluate – reflect cycle, first described
by Lewin in the 1940s and since elaborated in many different ways (e.g. Elliott, 1991:
70–71; McNiff, 1988: 21–46, Zuber-Skerritt, 1996: 99). Educational action research can
begin with practitioners asking, ‘how do I improve my practice?’ (Whitehead, 1989). In
seeking answers, they investigate their own practice, plan and carry out interventions to
improve it and evaluate the intended and unintended consequences of these interventions,
interrogating data in order to ground their evaluations in evidence. They reflect on each
stage in order to generate new plans, thus starting the cycle again. As Harris (2000) says,
In many respects this is a natural extension of a teacher’s professionalism, one where

reflection and development of one’s practice is crucial. Action research, though, takes
this further by combining theory and practice in a powerful way. It is practical in the
sense that it is based in one’s own needs and is designed to improve one’s practice,
but it is also underpinned by educational theory and . . . extensive and focused data
gathering. (p. 65)
On our diploma course the questions, ‘What did I do?’ ‘What did the pupils do?’ and ‘What
did they learn?’ required us to consider our actions and the consequences for the pupils.
The question, ‘How worthwhile was it?’ prompted us to evaluate these consequences. The
question, ‘What did I learn?’ helped us to reflect and consider changes to our teaching,
whilst the final question prompted us to re-start the action research cycle.
Because action research positions practitioners as constructing their own knowledge,
it is seen as a democratic process; a ‘grass-roots movement’ (Ormell, 2000). The aims of
action research are frequently political, to do with attaining greater social justice for the
participants and the people they serve, and it is sometimes used to challenge unjust systems
and practices in organisations, including schools. Action research processes are often
collaborative; people working together, in a democratic process, to effect change. Somekh
(2006) provides a useful summary of action research by summarising the ‘methodological
principles’ that underpin her ‘broad, inclusive definition’ of the process. For her, action
research:
(1) integrates research and action (1a) in a series of flexible cycles

(2) is conducted by a collaborative partnership of participants and researchers
(3) involves the development of knowledge and understanding of . . . change and
development in a natural (as opposed to contrived) social situation
(4) starts from a vision of social transformation and aspirations of greater social justice for
all
(5) involves a high level of reflexivity and sensitivity to the role of the self
(6) involves exploratory engagement with a wide range of existing knowledge
(7) engenders powerful learning for participants
284

(8) locates the enquiry in an understanding of broader historical, political and ideological
contexts (Somekh, 2006: 6–8, numbers not in original)
Educational action research has had a considerable growth in popularity during its
60-year history. However, in a major review of music education research, Rideout &
Feldman (2002) reported that, ‘action research has had little impact on research in
music education and music student teaching even though its potential contributions were
expounded 30 years ago’ (p. 882). In the same review Leglar & Collay (2002) noted a recent
‘considerable interest’ in action research from music educators, saying,
Because the methodology [of action research] is quite complex, practitioners often
undertake their first action research projects to fulfil the requirements for a graduate
degree. Several general music teachers have reported that conducting research had
a profound effect on their practice – which is the primary goal of action research.
(p. 868)
Previous reviews of action research in music education

Previous reviews have related music education action research to other endeavours and
have typically cited a small number of studies to illustrate its characteristics. Regelski (1995)
contended that music teaching is conducted largely ‘on the basis of past practice, recipe
teaching, and passing fads’ (p. 65). He argued that action research, underpinned by critical
theory, can challenge teachers by uncovering their false consciousness and misplaced faith
in common-sense teaching, providing ‘a new and disciplined basis for the rational critique
of current practices, ideals and rationales of music education’ as well as, ‘facilitat(ing)
change through a systematic, scientific process’ (p. 64). Regelski did not consider actual
reports of action research but based his argument on philosophical writings, including
Lewin (1946) and Carr & Kemmis (1986). Gifford (1997) compared action research with
action learning (in which people study their own actions and experience in order to
maximise their learning and improve their performance) and conceptualised action research
as including action learning but being ‘more deliberate, systematic and rigorous and is made
public’ (p. 113). Roulston (2006) situated action research within a qualitative paradigm,
stressing its participatory nature and citing Miller’s (1996: 2004) studies as examples. Bresler
(1996) also situated action research within a family of applied qualitative approaches.
She located the roots of such approaches in L’Art de toucher le clavecin (published in
1717), in which ‘Francois Couperin expressed pedagogical assertions based on extensive
observations of student behaviour’. Bresler (1996) argued that, ‘through action research we
learn about the processes of improvement in music instruction’ (p. 5) and described Miller’s
(1996) doctoral thesis by way of illustration. A more extended exploration of the subject
(Bresler, 1995/2006) compared the questions, methods and findings that are characteristic
of action research with those of ethnography and phenomenology, and characterised action
research questions as ‘practical, local, how-to issues, directly concerned with improving
a specific classroom practice’. Although she saw action research as operating within
a qualitative paradigm, Bresler (1995/2006) noted that it can also involve quantitative
methods, and described findings as leading to, ‘deep(er) understandings of the operational
and experienced curriculum and . . . changes in teaching’ (p. 21). She pointed out that,
285

Tim Cain
‘Because the act of teaching is intense, energy consuming and oriented toward doing as
opposed to reflecting, the perspective of an outsider often proves extremely helpful’ (p. 19)
and cited Soby (1989) as an illustrative example of action research. Each of these reviews
explained the value of action research and related this to music education. However,
because the actual reports they refer to were illustrative, they lacked inductive analysis that
might explore the characteristics of different studies.
Some studies have investigated action research enquiries by teachers or student
teachers. Roulston et al. (2005), investigating a research group of two early-career music
teachers and two academics, found the group’s work was mutually beneficial, especially in
developing the skills or ‘asking critical questions . . . and seeking evidence based answers’
(p. 14). The authors suggested that, to maximise professional development potential, such
groups should develop over a substantial period, and adopt a structured framework with
specific goals. Both Strand (2006) and Cain et al. (2007) found that being involved in action
research encouraged student teachers to read educational literature and engage with theory.
The students’ writing went beyond expressing their feelings about teaching and focused
more on their personal development as teachers. The present article builds on these studies
by analysing 24 action research reports by teachers and academics in music education and
asking, ‘What are the distinguishing characteristics of action research in music education?’
Methods
Wanting to ground this review in a large number of studies, I searched for published action
research reports in music education using ERIC, BEI, CERUK, Google Scholar and Sage. I
also searched the abstracts of music education journals for references to action research
and Educational Action Research for references to music education. I examined the reports
thus revealed, focusing on those which were short (journal articles, papers in conference
proceedings and book chapters, not theses), because they were published since 1990, in
the public domain, in English, and because they are explicitly identified by their authors
as action research.
Reading, re-reading and summarising each report, I identified the elements of planning,
acting, evaluating and reflecting. I included data collection with acting, and data analysis
with evaluating. Most action research reports are not structured in this way because
each element typically changes during the research, sometimes occurring more or less
simultaneously, with distinctions between them being blurred. The reports typically simplify
the research processes and my analysis simplified it further – to understand any particular
report, it should be read in full. Where possible I incorporated the author’s words in
the analysis. Concerned that it might be too formulaic to deal with the complexities
of the research under review, wherever I could find the authors’ email address, I sent
them the analysis for member-checking. Some suggested minor changes, most of which I
incorporated, but none reported that their work had been seriously misrepresented.
In order to understand the strengths of each report as action research, I identified which
of Somekh’s (2006) methodological principles was apparent in each report (see Table 1,
Column 1). These principles provide a trustworthy account of action research because they
encapsulate similar points by other authors, and because Somekh (an acknowledged expert
in action research) cites considerable personal experience in support of them. They also
286

provide the possibility of a more comprehensive analysis than other typologies of action
research, including Carr & Kemmis’ (1986) distinction between technical, practical and
emancipatory levels, and Noffke’s (1997) categories of professional, personal and political
dimensions.
Analysis
The analysis in Table 1 reveals a wide range of action research projects, involving single
teachers and many teachers, with and without support from academics, in sites which
include schools, universities, conservatoires, extra-curricular and community spaces. The
focus of the action included curriculum, resources, assessment, behaviour management
and teaching approaches, with participants including teachers, parents and students:
the very young, school-children, adolescents and adults. Although the most common
data collection methods were qualitative, including reflective journals, interviews and
participant observations, some studies also employed quantitative methods. Where data
analysis was described, it was sometimes inductive, deriving themes from the data (e.g.
Davidson, 2004) and sometimes deductive, relating data to pre-existing theories (e.g. Miller,
2004). With regard to Somekh’s methodological principles, all projects employed some of
the principles but none employed all, and some occurred markedly more often than others
(see Table 2). The following section explores the extent to which Somekh’s principles were
observed in these reports.
Characteristics of many reports: (a) integrating research and action, (b) collaboration,
(c) drawing on existing knowledge, and (d) engendering powerful learning
(a) Somekh conceptualised research as ‘the collection of data’ and ‘analysis and
interpretation of those data’ and described this process as being integrated holistically
with ‘the planning and introduction of action strategies to bring about positive change’.
Achieving holistic integration is not easy; Hammersley (2004), arguing that such integration
is logically impossible, suggested that either research must be subordinated to action
or vice-versa. In some reports the research element appeared subordinate; for example
several reports did not explain how their data were collected or analysed. Viewed purely
as research, many reports might be considered weak, tending towards anecdotalism or
selective treatment of data, and it could be argued that the improvements claimed might
exist mainly in the minds of the researchers. In contrast, the research element in Welch
et al. (2005) included a very detailed analysis of lessons, but the action was restricted to
providing technology and training for the teachers in the study.
(b) Although action research is considered a grassroots movement, Somekh recognised
that insider researchers (such as teachers) often work with outsiders (such as university staff),
and she discussed different combinations of researchers and participants (including pupils).
She insisted that there should be ‘equality of esteem’ between researchers, allowing the
perspectives of ‘insiders’, who possess detailed understandings of their immediate contexts,
to complement those of ‘outsiders’ who possess understandings of broader contexts
surrounding education and research. These reports show a variety of collaborations:
nine were instigated by teachers, either in school or private practice, ten by university staff,
287

Table 1 Reports of action research in music education
288
Tim Cain
Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and
reasons for action) collection) data analysis) Reflection and conclusions
Mackworth- The research tested 4 research subjects A modified version of the Flanders Pupil-directed lessons,
Young (1990) the hypothesis, ‘that a were given 10 lessons Interaction Analysis Category recordings, questionnaires and
Somekh: pupil-centred each: 3 were System was used to analyse audio contracts help the teacher
12567 approach to piano ‘teacher-directed’, 2 and video data. 2 independent understand psychological and
lessons . . . will result ‘pupil-directed’ and 4 observers reported on these data. emotional factors. To teach
in increased ‘pupil-centred’; the Pupil-centred lessons resulted in pupil-directed lessons the
enjoyment of the remaining lesson greater teacher-pupil teacher needs a broad base of
lesson, increased contained an communication and empathy, and knowledge, e.g. learning
interest, positive interview. Lessons increased motivation. This was not music by ear, to teach on
attitudes, motivation were audio- and consistent across all pupils, two of request. Too much
and progress, and a video-taped, pupils’ whom reported feelings of being pupil-direction can lead to a
better teacher-pupil and parents’ views ‘abandoned’ in the pupil-centred sense of abandonment and
relationship.’ were sought via lessons. stagnation; too much
questionnaires. teacher-direction can lead to
loss of freedom and empathy,
risking alienating the pupil.
Barrett (1994) A music course for 14 sessions of 2 hours Students gained a greater Factors which led to greater
Somekh: intending Primary each were taught, in understanding of the learning musical understanding
1267 teachers was which ITE students processes inherent in the arts. Diary included meeting open-ended
developed with, ‘worked through a entries showed that, ‘Through active challenges in a natural
‘compositional series of engagement in the composition learning environment and
experience [rather compositional process, students displayed an modelling by the teacher.
than traditionally- challenges’. Data understanding of the basic music
taught skills] at the collected by concepts . . . developing aural
heart of the music participant capacities . . . graphic notation . . .
education enterprise’. observation by the conventional notation . . . began to
teacher, and students’ perceive themselves as composers
reflective diaries. and musicians’.

Hookey To explore how The author, a music Analysis investigated, ‘patterns in Collaborative research
(1994) generalist classroom specialist, worked the consultative process . . . our allowed the teachers to
Somekh: teachers teach music with two generalist reflections . . . the negotiation confront previously-held
123567 when supported by a class teachers to plan process’. Collaboration involved assumptions. Music might be
specialist teacher; to and teach music in an sharing stories of current practice, better taught if teachers allow
discover how their elementary school. then finding an appropriate music pupils to play musically with
jointly-planned music Data included audio education focus. Integrating music sounds and to discover
curriculum was, and video recordings with poetry and reading was ‘a connections and construct
‘negotiated and of planning, teaching practice that enfolded music meaning for themselves. The
enacted’. and ‘reflective education into the overarching focus on generalist and
conferences’. rationale of classroom instruction’. specialist roles should be
Pedagogy became more loosely supplanted with a concern for
structured as pupils’ questions and the students . . . draw[ing] all

responses guided the lessons. persons into the web of
Mutual understanding developed as curriculum responsibility’.
one teacher shared ‘the images of
curriculum and pedagogy . . . in her
personal practical knowledge’.
Miller (1996) The author, a music Over a 2-year period, The generalist teacher’s practice Integrating music is not a
Somekh: specialist, worked weekly, 25-minute, was analysed using a model of single entity; it can involve
1 1a 2 3 6 7 8 with a generalist class music lessons for curricular integration; the same associating music with topics
teacher to improve first-grade children model was used to analyse the from other areas of the
the way in which were collaboratively music lessons. curriculum, connecting
music learning was planned and musical skills with other skills
integrated into the evaluated. Some including higher level thinking
elementary (Primary) lessons were skills, connecting underlying
school curriculum, videotaped; there was concepts (such as form, line
‘looking for ways to participant and and texture) across different
make truly authentic non-participant disciplines, and borrowing
connections between observation, and pedagogical approaches from
289

290
Tim Cain
Table 1 Continued

my music education individual and group other subjects. Benefits of

agenda and her assessments. Lesson collaboration are described:
curriculum [rather content included ‘Teachers know their children
than being] . . . ‘a musical elements; and their programmes so
handmaiden to other pedagogical strategies much better than outsiders
subjects’. included can ever know them that it
‘engagement of every makes sense for teachers to be
child’ as ‘the answering their own
immediate goal’. pedagogical questions’.
Difficulties of collaborative
action research include the
problem of finding time, and
sustained commitment.
Howard & ‘to develop young 1993: students A case study approach: 4 Some students aspired to high
Martin (1997) composers’, aged composed for a individuals and 1 group. Patterns cognitive/technical levels, but
Somekh: 11–19, in a year-long, symphonic band; found by comparing cases. 2 not always those with greater
1 1a 2 3 6 7 8 after hours, creative stimuli included individual cases presented in this academic experience in
music project. performances by the report, of students participating in music. Group work can be
Specific objectives band and a handbook 1994 and 1995 projects. Student A ‘highly beneficial in the early
are listed; these about composing. composed in a single sitting, stages of learning
changed during the 3 1994: The emphasis influenced by classical forms, composition’. Singaporean
projects (1993, 1994 changed to group learned to ‘think creatively, have students are ‘capable of
and 1995) reported composing and ‘to be confidence in her ideas, to compose completing original
on. better musicians a complete work . . . with a wider compositions . . . approaches

through composing’. range of instruments’. Student B to composing were
2 group assignments kept compositional sketches, used wide-ranging and students
and 1 individual. 20th century techniques and relied on their own music
Pieces performed in a original notation and related music background in generating
concert. to other aspects of life. ideas.’ The act of composing
1995: Composing for ‘produced a reinterpretation
a professional piano and extension’ of this
duo. Stimuli included background knowledge. A
pieces for duo. Data refined, 3-year project design
collection included resulted.
observation,
interviews and video

recordings.
Black (1998) Aims, ‘to create in my Pupils wrote ‘one Discussed data with a critical ‘As a minimum, I intend to
Somekh: class an atmosphere hundred good thing friend, described 2 cases in detail. include journal writing in my
1 1a 2 3 4 5 of trust, acceptance, about themselves’ on Quotes from pupils show positive vocal classes . . . everyone
67 tolerance and respect cards. In later lessons, attitudes towards themselves and should have 100 good things
for one another’. they wrote their vocal class. Data showed that about themselves that they
Faced with a difficult compliments about they developed, ‘an improved sense review every day . . . students
class, Black asked, each other. Data of social responsibility’ and ‘the always appreciate positive
‘How can I help my included journals atmosphere improved more than reinforcement . . . essential
students develop their kept by pupils and that of any other class I have complicated [musical]
self-esteem so they teacher over 4 taught’. concepts were mastered’
will take a more months, plus [despite time spent on writing
active role in their transcriptions of class and reading cards and
own learning?’ discussions journals].
291

292
Tim Cain
Table 1 Continued
Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and Reflection and
reasons for action) collection) data analysis) conclusions
James (1998) To discover whether A class of 8- and The post-test scores showed a 10% ‘Research of this kind has
Somekh: pupils’ understanding 9-year-olds was taught to increase in correct answers to the possibility of
13 of the expressive beat time to recordings of questions about metre, tempo, generating great
qualities of music songs in three structured dynamics and style, with classroom lessons and
would be enhanced lessons. A written test was particularly large increases in curricular approaches’.
by certain kinds of administered before and questions relating to tempo and
conducting activities afterwards and pupils dynamics. Their writing showed
(e.g. beating time). wrote about their that they enjoyed the activities.
experiences of conducting.
Cope (1999) ‘To make Children, aged 7–11, were Participation was ‘well above the ‘We have been
Somekh: music-making a more encouraged to join a normal level for violin playing’ reasonably successful in
1 1a 2 6 7 8 authentic activity’, ‘to traditional fiddling group (participation figures over 3 years finding a common chord
move instrument in a small town. are provided). ‘Players [became] between children,
learning from its Instruments were provided competent enough to win parents and community.
position as a for those who could not convincingly in local competitions Our experience is that
peripheral part of the afford them and parents (these are listed). ‘A reasonable parents do not want their
school curriculum to were involved in setting up level of practice [was maintained]’ children to be classical
something with much the project, fundraising, (widely varying patterns of practice musicians – they want
stronger roots in the and helping their children are described). ‘We have permeated them to be able to play
community’. to practise together. There the local culture with notions of confidently and
was no selection, no fiddling’ (regular performances are competently at social
formal tuition, technique described). events.’

was considered secondary
to participating. Data
collection is not described;
‘it is not possible to give
an objective measure of
progress . . . because such
judgements are
culture-bound’.
Conway & To discover why Six pupils who continued ‘Data were analysed through Findings, ‘will help the
Borst (2001) many pupils, who with the elective choral coding and categorization from overall choral program to
Somekh: had experienced music class were given transcripts of audiotape, videotape develop a plan of action
26 high-quality choral structured individual and notes. Seven categories that fosters student

music in middle interviews. They were also included singing for, ‘learning’s involvement’.
school, chose not to interviewed together, and sake’, ‘self-expression’, ‘social Suggestions include
continue with choral parents were given a reasons’, ‘enjoyment’, middle school students
music at high school 5-minute telephone ‘performance’, ‘to be identified with having buddies in high
level. Research interview. the school program’ and ‘for the school and concerts,
questions included, music itself’. Findings included involving pupils from
‘what personal factors students and parents expressing different schools
. . . motivated vocal positive feelings; reasons included including social time
music students to ‘social reasons’, ‘personal gain’ and which will ‘get people
continue their study ‘entertainment’ but, ‘the value of art together’.
of chorus?’ and ‘what for art’s sake did not emerge as a
non-musical significant reason for participating
influences motivated in choir’.
the students to value
their choir class
experiences?’
293

294
Tim Cain
Table 1 Continued

Reynolds & To discover student Reynolds taught Interviews were transcribed and The students’ positive
Conway teachers’ perceptions student teachers to coded; both authors analysed data. comments corroborate
(2003) of a fieldwork teach music lessons, All students responded positively, findings from other studies. It
Somekh: experience. which they then seeing the fieldwork as relevant to is difficult to motivate music
1267 taught in an future careers and boosting students to choose elementary
elementary school, confidence. Some reported that the teaching as a career; ‘If
using video to experience had positively service-learning experiences
examine their own influenced their career choice of assist students with making
practice. Individual teaching. that choice, it is a model that
interviews assessed must be examined further’.
their perceptions of
the experience.
Bannan (2004) ‘To develop a ‘Harmony signing’, a Data analysis methods are not (a) ‘Harmony signing can have
Somekh: consistent and pedagogical stated but 5 examples of musical a valuable role in the
1267 flexible pedagogical approach to singing development are listed. development of musicianship
tool’ [‘harmony in harmony, was and aural skills’ in participants
signing’] which developed with 12 from age 7 to conservatoire
develops, groups of singers level. It can also be used to
‘participants’ feel for including children, assess musical thinking.
harmony and their young people and (b) The more expertise had
confidence to explore adults with varied been developed in formal
music through vocal experience of singing. thinking about harmony, the
improvisation’ Data collection less able the participants were
included live to harmonise intuitively.

observation, video
analysis and
discussion with
participants; singers
and signers.
Conway & ‘To examine the Over 2 years, an Coding and categorising were The project occupied
Jeffers (2004) perceptions of instrumental teacher undertaken collaboratively. Findings considerable time but ‘was the
Somekh: parents, students and (Jeffers) worked with a included, ‘parents and students . . . most important period of
1 1a 2 5 6 7 the teacher regarding university researcher want an accurate assessment based professional growth and
assessment in (Conway) to develop on musical criteria’ . . . some did development’ for the teacher.
beginning and administer not understand musical terminology Success was linked to the
instrumental tuition.’ assessment tools . . . parents had contradictory collaborative research

which rated students’ expectations: ‘you can’t please processes.
abilities to ‘sing, them all’ although ‘providing
move, play in tune, different types of assessment of a
play with good variety of skills could help to satisfy
rhythm’, and to more of the students and parents’.
obtain the views of
parents and pupils on
the tools’ strengths
and weaknesses. Data
included a teacher’s
log, a reflective
interview, surveys
and interviews with
pupils and parents.
295

296
Tim Cain
Table 1 Continued

Davidson ‘To research the The researcher ‘All data were systematically Participants worked together
(2004) dramatic and musical directed the examined with emergent to create ‘a shared psychic life’
Somekh: elements of an opera rehearsals and like-content being grouped . . . with ‘a sense of association to
1 1a 2 5 6 7 production (Purcell’s performance. Data these groups of data were arranged the whole’. Creativity involved
Dido and Aeneas) included according to theme . . . taken back ‘finding answers to questions
being constructed in questionnaires and to participants and their advice was (by) thinking broadly about
rehearsal’. diary entries from sought about the validity of the issues, then limiting our
each member of the categorisations’. options in order to come to a
cast, discussions and conclusion’. Group dynamics
written feedback after functioned because of
the final performance. flexibility of individuals, some
of whom started by feeling
separate but ended by feeling
assimilated into the group.
The process is described as ‘a
journey of self-discovery and
change’.
Miller (2004) Goal: that children 1 lesson per week Bruner’s theories – spiral It is possible to ‘construct a
Somekh: ‘experience deep (20–35 minutes) curriculum, enactive & iconic curriculum which
1 1a 2 6 7 8 conceptual taught to elementary representations of learning, incorporates improvisational
understanding . . . that children in 2 schools. scaffolding – were used as a and compositional tasks that
results from student Observations framework to understand classroom are developmental, spiral and

composition’ [not recorded in a journal, events. Wolf & Gardner (1980) and individualized’. Composition
merely] ‘sing, play children’s Swanwick & Tillman (1986) were projects ‘allow all children to
move!’ This involves compositions used to understand children’s work at their own levels’. All
a ‘change in focus collected, written and compositions. Findings include: 1st children were able to
from behaviourism to aural feedback from grade – used iconic and enactive participate and to discuss and
constructivism’. children and other representations, made overt, perform their compositions . . .
Questions included, teacher-observers. ‘blatant and romantic’ musical children have enough recall to
‘how could I achieve Lessons became gestures. 2nd grade – devised their continue a compositional
this with whole ‘small assignments’ own representations, displayed project from week to week . . .
classes of very active which built into ‘delight with the sounds most children can concentrate
elementary children’ ‘whole projects’, themselves’, moved to ‘higher order through the confusion’. Keys
. . . in a ‘limited time involving children thinking goals’. 5th grade – used to success included the use of

frame’ . . . meeting the inventing their own techniques met in instrumental or high-quality, motivational
needs of ‘diverse means of notating vocal lessons, talked about materials, music and words,
ability levels’? music. 3 cases of purposely choosing melody, rhythm and activities which were
lessons are described or tone colours. sequenced to provide ‘a
in detail. secure footing of small
incremental steps’ in
learning.
Auh (2005) To ‘make a difference’ The researcher taught Data analysis is described as Teaching strategies found to
Somekh: in a public high music full-time in one reflection. Evidence is cited for be successful included,
1347 school in a socially school from improvements in both achievement (a) teaching music with
and economically May–December, and attitudes. For example, ‘Before I sounds, not worksheets,
deprived area, teaching performing, arrived at the school, Years 7 and 8 (b) using specially-prepared
through creative listening & students had had no musical music books for accumulating
297

298
Tim Cain
Table 1 Continued

approaches to composing. Data instruments for class use . . . At the work and making progress
teaching music. collection was chiefly end of my teaching, most students visible, (c) using Australian
Research questions through participant were able to play the keyboards for Idol to motivate singing, (d)
included, ‘What observation. Happy Birthday to you, Für Elize by using short, regular tasks to
differences in Beethoven, Jingle Bells and Silent start composing, (e) spotting
learning were Night . . . They could sing songs in and encouraging talented
facilitated?’ and, tune . . . Some students developed a pupils (often with low
‘What teaching liking for other styles of music than self-esteem), (f) using copying
strategies were popular music, for example, as a means of encouraging
effective?’ Rigoletto’. notation.
Savage (2005) ‘To analyse and Three linked action Data analysis is not described but The pupils’ need to move
Somekh: evaluate the use of research projects, the evidence shows that ICT enabled quickly to completion might
123678 ICT as a way to author using ICT in a pupils to became directly engaged be connected to their
develop new Secondary school. In with sound (i.e. timbres); that pupils experiences in other
approaches to music each, he used a needed time and space in order to curriculum areas, where
in the classroom’. The model of composing engage in the playful exploration or ‘subject knowledge and
main research which he had ‘musical doodling’ that led to content came pre-packed and
question was, ‘What previously developed powerful learning; that they found easily digestible’.
impact does ICT have from observing the process of selecting sounds
on the ways that electroacoustic straightforward because they chose
pupils learn about composers in a sounds that caught their aural
music, particularly university: starting imagination; and that they tended to
composition?’ points, close down exploratory processes,

experimentation, moving ‘too quickly to
selection, structure, completion’
evaluate/revise. Data
collection included
journal notes, pupil
diaries, interviews,
whole-class
discussions and
musical products.
Wasiak (2005) To produce a The multi-media Statistical analysis of surveys, Conventional programming
Somekh: multi-media concert concert was devised videos sampled at 5-minute for young people’s concerts

123467 for children, jointly by people intervals and analysed using Givens ‘need to be re-examined . . .
combining from the indigenous (2003), qualitative data coded and using traditional and
contemporary art Blackfoot population emergent themes listed. (a) Most non-traditional ensembles
forms with elements and a university in students responded positively. [and] new media’. Research is
of the Blackfoot Southern Alberta, (b) The teachers were mostly unable needed on the efficacy of
traditions and to Canada. They also to complete the instructional unit, children’s concerts.
discover, (a) whether developed although evidence suggests that the ‘Collaboration between artists
children would instructional materials, ‘had great potential and, and educators to create a
respond positively to materials. Data at the very least, some efficacy’. concert with local cultural
it, (b) whether the included surveys, (c) The project was successful in content can result in . . .
instructional materials journal reflections, promoting cultural understanding considerable benefits . . .
would help them interviews and although not everyone involved [these] require careful
better to appreciate it videotaped samples agreed: two non-aboriginal children planning, co-ordination and
299

300
Tim Cain
Table 1 Continued

and (c) whether the of children’s were withdrawn from the project by adherence to established
aboriginal and responses to the their parents and some Blackfoot timelines’.
non-aboriginal concert. people among the audience
participants would responded negatively to the
develop mutual concert.
understanding and
respect.
Welch et al. ‘To research Two singing teachers, Two sample lessons of each Teachers and students
(2005) alternative each with two teacher – one without technology reported clear benefits to the
Somekh: pedagogical students who used and one with technology available - technology. There were
126 approaches and to the technology and were analysed second-by-second. significant differences
explore the extent to two who didn’t; these Teacher and student behaviours between the basic
which advanced formed a ‘control’ categorised according to an existing pedagogical approaches of the
voice science group. Data protocol which included two teachers, and the effect, of
technology could be collection included conversation, demonstrating, having the technology, varied
incorporated in a data saved on listening and performing; the use of with the teachers. For
meaningful way in computers, real-time technology in the second lesson of example, Teacher 1 watched it
the singing studio’. and video-recorded each teacher was also analysed. and referred to it for around
This technology observation of singing 38% of the lesson but didn’t
provided real-time lessons, interviews change the use of his time;
visual feedback on a and teacher and Teacher 2 increased the time
computer, providing student journals; the spent on instructing with a

potential for a better report focuses on an shared focus on the
match between the analysis of four technology; this occupied
teacher’s intended sample lessons. around 61% of her sampled
outcomes, in terms of lesson.
the quality of vocal
sound, and the
students’ actual
outcomes. Research
questions included
the extent to which
students and teachers
used the technology,

and how it was
integrated into
singing lessons.
Young (2005) ‘To extend and Artists, ‘selected on The musician ‘increasingly found The musical game-like
Somekh: develop existing the basis of that being cast in the role of activities played by the
1236 versions of practice well-referenced prior ‘musician’ . . . could be restricting.’ musician and the very young
. . . to push the experience’ worked Especially with the youngest were multi-modal, involving
boundaries of in a variety of children/babies, she worked in a ‘a sense of forward direction
practice’ of pre-school settings multi-modal way (visual, aural, and a momentum towards a
professional artists including nurseries, tactile and kinaesthetic) e.g. point of climax followed by
(including musicians), daycare and family ‘encourag[ing] storylines and closure . . . not necessarily
working in hostels. Researchers, mini-dramas to emerge in play with ‘about’ anything but the play
early-years settings. including the author, instruments . . . vocalis[ing] of rhythm, shape, pattern and
used ‘a set of dramatically in response, or dance structure’. Music for the very
301

302
Tim Cain
Table 1 Continued

common tools for with instruments and beaters rather young ‘should move towards
data collection’. The than focus on their sound-making versions which allow them to
report focuses on one qualities alone’. Playful activity was engage creatively with generic
community musician extended by repetitions and time-based, multi-modal
in a ‘stay and play’ variations ‘usually in turn-taking improvisations that expand
setting. dialogues between children and into playful game-like or
adults’, underpinned by narrative-like forms’. This
‘interpersonal dynamics – the implies, ‘a broad conception
rhythmic give and take of of musicality’.
sympathetic, well-timed
communicative processes’.
Strand (2005) To find ways of better A summer enrichment Data transcribed and coded with 3 Concept transfer was
Somekh: facilitating concept class in Chicago; levels of coding. Another analyst facilitated through, (a) a
123567 transfer: pupils using pupils aged 9–12. coded data independently. combination of direct
concepts they had c. 32 hours of class Emergent themes included instruction and guided
learned in music time over four weeks. ‘teaching concepts, teaching the discovery strategies,
lessons in their ‘A collaborative students to compose, developing (b) instruction which helped
composing. transfer composing the learning environment, and . . . students to learn how to
task’ given on the last evidence of transfer . . . in student compose, (c) an approach
day of each set of compositions’. which developed the pupils as
lessons. Data a community of learners.
included lesson
plans, video and

audio recordings of
lessons and work
produced, field notes,
written artefacts and
discussions with
expert observers.
Odena & ‘To go beyond the In consultation with Data analysis is not described, but Dramatising the score helped
Cabrera score’ looking for three experienced quotes from students showed that to link together multiple
(2006) ways to help performers, a the project ‘helped the students to intelligences, including visual,
Somekh: advanced clarinet 4-session programme better understand the concerto . . . aural and sensory-motor
12567 students to better was designed and to remember that they were actors representations. It also
understand and taught to five . . . to lose fear . . . and to see it with encouraged an emotional

perform the first conservatoire renewed eyes’. involvement with the music.
movement of students, who were
Mozart’s Concerto for encouraged to see the
Clarinet. dramatic/operatic
qualities of the
concerto. In the final
session, students
performed the piece
wearing costumes
inspired by characters
in The Magic Flute,
and playing only
those passages
associated with the
303

304
Tim Cain
Table 1 Continued

characters. Students’
opinions were
canvassed via
questionnaires and
interviews, and
sessions were
videoed.
Gaunt (2007) ‘To explore a range of The author taught and At first, students characterised Key principles were shown to
Somekh: approaches to researched 11 oboe breathing as being physically contribute to practice to
12367 teaching and learning students at a uncomfortable and musically different degrees. ‘The simple
breathing in oboe conservatoire, over intrusive, had limited physiological concepts were most useful’;
playing, and to an 11-week period. understanding and made few more complex ideas, ‘were
understand more Teaching included connections between breathing and not taken up so
about their impact on individual lessons, a musical line. Breathing was enthusiastically and had
students’ seminar on breathing, connected with physical tension relatively little impact’. The
development of their Alexander Technique and anxiety; they had difficulty in research process allowed
practice as classes and articulating knowledge about students to reflect on their
instrumentalists.’ Key workshops, focused breathing. During the research they own learning and learn from
principles, arising on breathing. Data developed a stronger awareness of each other, benefiting ‘from
from a literature collection included breathing, took fewer gasping each other’s perspectives and
review, included video recordings, breaths and developed a more ideas’.

anatomical and interviews, a relaxed relationship between
physiological matters, questionnaire, the breathing, posture and movement.
connections between teacher’s reflective They made stronger connections
breathing and (a) notes and between breathing and music, and
posture/movement, observations by a developed strategies for reducing
(b) musical critical friend. anxiety and self-criticism, but did
expression and (c) Triangulation was not integrate physiological
performance. provided via multiple understanding with practical
perspectives (teacher, knowledge.
pupils and critical
friend).
Major (2007) ‘to reflect on and The teacher- Data from the first 2 cycles were ‘Children’s capacity to talk

Somekh: explore the ways in researcher taught analysed inductively to produce a about what they understand is
1 1a 2 3 6 which talk is used by class lessons to typology of talk: exploratory, far more limited than the
teachers and children school pupils aged description, opinions, affective, understandings which are
to further their 11–16. She made evaluative and problem solving. demonstrated in their music’.
composing work, and video and audio The 3rd cycle task was imaginative Evaluative talk requires a
thereby to improve recordings of her and designed to elicit more sensitive setting, unlikely to be
practice and inform lessons, and 1 lesson evaluative responses: although most present in whole-class
professional by a colleague. She talk was descriptive, one group of context, but teachers can
judgement’. also interviewed pupils produced evaluative and encourage this in ‘written
pupils. There were 3 analytical, problem solving talk. evaluations or . . . collective
cycles; in the 3rd peer evaluations’. Higher level
cycle, pupils were evaluative appraising is
asked ‘to demonstrate encouraged by, ‘peer
their music to each evaluation, using an
other and to talk to imaginative task’.
305

306
Tim Cain
Table 1 Continued

each other about their

musical
compositions’.
Price & ‘To help create real Major projects 1. In 21 schools Year 9 used an 1. Informal learning practices
D’Amore partnerships across involving teachers, adapted form of informal learning often result in a high level of
(2007) the formal and musicians and practices (Green, 2008). Data were ownership and enjoyment on
Somekh: 1 2 3 informal sectors of researchers in three collected by observation, interview, behalf of the students, which
4678 arts education, and to areas of England: transcribed meetings and often leads to improved
influence policy and 1. to develop an questionnaires. In some classes motivation, attitude and
practice in music informal model of peripatetic teachers helped; in all attainment. Music leaders are
education’. Main music learning in classes students engaged in best employed when the class
areas of enquiry: schools peer-teaching and learning. teacher instigates this. Pupils,
improving pedagogy, 2. to develop a range 2. Music leaders worked in 3 as peer leaders can effectively
learner of out of hours music schools to develop a year-long inspire others. A significant
disengagement, and to pilot a new curriculum for Y8, also developed a training programme is needed
hindrances to initial teacher new ITE programme. to develop music leaders.
motivation, dialogue education (ITE) 3. A web-based media company, 2. Pupils can learn ‘real’
between sectors, course, developing an e-learning resource, instruments in class if Music
development of 3. to develop an discovered that such a site cannot Service resources are
music leaders, e-learning resource, match MySpace as a means of re-focused. Many pupils
infrastructural blocks, an alternative social networking for young people. choose to stay after school
young people as curriculum for music The resource became an adult-led when this builds on their
directors of their own learning out of tool; now Numu: experience in lessons.
learning. school, and to www.numu.org.uk/default.asp. The Introducing public

develop an alternative curriculum developed performance into the
accreditation model into industry-related projects, curriculum can make learning
for non-formal ‘genre-free’ projects and those authentic and develop pupils’
learning, which progressively built student musical identities and
competence. performing styles.
3. Young people need to be
able to engage with music
when, where, how and with
whom they want: it is
important to support them to
become leaders and managers
of their own learning.

Reaching disengaged (or
wavering) music participants
was effective only with school
involvement. Music Services
can work with schools to
ensure connections between
formal and informal music.
Reynolds & Conway 2003; Howard & Martin 1997; Strand 2005; Wolf & Gardner 1980; Swanwick & Tillman 1986; Green 2008.
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Tim Cain
Table 2 The extent to which Somekh’s methodological principles were observed in these
reports
Somekh’s principles 1 1a 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Action research reports (n = 24) 23 8 22 13 4 7 22 19 6
whilst others were undertaken by teachers, supported by university researchers. Most

involved partnership with learner-participants but not all described how the consent of
participants was obtained; indeed, ethical issues were not mentioned in most reports. (A
notable exception is Gaunt, 2007.) Furthermore, some of the research was undertaken by
a sole researcher without the support of critical friends, which might have strengthened the
trustworthiness of the findings.
(c) Somekh described existing knowledge, ‘drawn from psychology, philosophy,
sociology and other fields’ becoming ‘an integral part of analysis and interpretation’. As
we have seen, Strand (2006) and Cain et al. (2007) found that action research encouraged
student teachers to read, understand and cite academic literature; a similar effect can be
noted with teachers. Almost all reports cited many other research texts, demonstrating
knowledge of the field under study. However, not all cited action research methodology
texts, few referred to other action research projects, and there is little evidence that music
education action researchers know each other’s work. It is also notable that the project with
perhaps the greatest potential impact on practice in England (Price and D’Amore, 2007)
cited very few texts.
(d) Powerful learning, according to Somekh, occurs through a combination of research
and reflection, and might be ‘less intense’ for outsider researchers. Most reports claimed
powerful learning for the researchers and some went further, citing evidence of powerful
learning for the participant pupils (e.g. Black, 1998; Auh, 2005) and even the surrounding
community (e.g. Cope, 1999; Wasiak, 2005).
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f f e w r e p o r t s : ( a ) cy cl i c a l d e s i g n , ( b ) s o c i a l j u s t i c e , ( c ) r e fl e x i v i t y a n d
(d) location within broader contexts
(a) Although Somekh refers to action research as a ‘cyclical process’, Conway & Borst
(2001) pointed out that much reflection, of which action research is a part, is ‘temporally
truncated’; that is, there is only one turn of the action research cycle. Most of these projects
were not cyclical and some were carried out as before-and-after studies; indeed James
(1998) actually had an experimental design. However, several projects appeared to gain in
depth as a result of sustained reflection over time. Helpfully, Cope (1999) documented a
deterioration in the second year of the project, leading to improvements in the third year,
reminding us that not all action leads to improvement.
(b) For Somekh, social transformation is related to a moral and political standpoint of
aiming for greater social justice for all. Few of these reports allied themselves explicitly
with such a position, although Auh (2005) was concerned with impact in a school serving
a socially and economically deprived area and Black (1998) was concerned to achieve
the cohesion, that is a consequence of greater social justice, in her own class. The report
308

which most fully embodies Somekh’s notions of action research promoting social justice,
is Wasiak (2005) which had a clear aim of diminishing power differentials between groups
of people.
(c) Somekh acknowledged that one approach to action research, seen especially in
the work of Whitehead (e.g. 1989) and McNiff (e.g. 1988) views ‘an exploration of the
self . . . as the central purpose of carrying out research’. She rejected this view as oriented
towards professional development rather than research, but nevertheless stated that, ‘the
development of self-understanding is important in action research’. Given that music can
be seen partly as a means of self-expression, it is perhaps surprising that none of these
reports contain anything that could be described as ‘an exploration of the self’. Examples
of reflexivity are confined to the authors’ reflecting on the significance of their learning to
their professional development (e.g. Conway & Jeffers, 2004), rather than achieving greater
self-knowledge.
(d) Finally, Somekh saw the broader historical, political and ideological contexts as
inevitably shaping activity at local levels. Several of these reports drew links between
their own research and its wider contexts. For example, Miller’s (1996) study was situated
in a context in which music is seen as merely a ‘handmaiden’ to other subjects; she
took a stance against ideologies that position music as peripheral. However, it would be
misleading to argue that these reports are strongly influenced by historical, political and
ideological contexts, or that action researchers in music education are generally concerned
with changing such contexts; such change as occurs is usually conceptualised as having a
local effect, rather than being allied to wider political movements.
Conclusion
This review has demonstrated that reports, of music education action research, focus on
a wide variety of subject matter, although there is not yet a substantial body of reports
from any particular field within music education. They integrate research and action, are
collaborative, grounded in a body of existing knowledge, and lead to powerful learning
for the participants, although few are cyclical, deal with aspects of social transformation,
or broad historical, political or ideological contexts. There is little focus on reflexivity.
Thus most reports describe fairly pragmatic (rather than ideals-driven) attempts to improve
practice locally – in the terms used by Carr & Kemmis (1986) they are more often practical
than emancipatory. And, although no single report meets all of Somekh’s principles, this
might be because at least two of these principles can be seen as mutually incompatible –
no report focuses both on the self and on societal contexts and this could be because both
foci cannot be equally well served by the same project.
Discussion
There are issues of quality. Unlike some other types of research, action research is seen
as having a value in itself, independently of any published report, because the process of
carrying out the project can positively affect practice. (The only instance I found in which
action research did not affect practice, was Byrne & Sheridan (2001); their SCARLATTI
project generated teaching materials but failed, in its action research component, to get
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Tim Cain
teachers to share their practice in an online teachers’ network.) But action research also
generates practitioners’ knowledge, and Leglar & Collay (2002) saw the accumulation of
such knowledge, as, ‘central to the evolution of teaching . . . to a true profession’ (p. 868).
So action research affects practice, and action research reports can lead to dissemination
of practitioners’ knowledge.
However, whereas social science research is largely concerned with generating
propositional (i.e. ‘factual’ or ‘declarative’) knowledge, practitioners’ knowledge is more
varied than this. Swanwick (1994) describes four overlapping, but logically distinguishable
types of knowledge: propositional knowledge (e.g. knowing how many symphonies
Beethoven wrote); procedural knowledge (e.g. how to play a violin); acquaintance
knowledge (e.g. knowing Elgar’s overture, In the South) and attitudinal knowledge (e.g.
valuing rock music as profoundly significant). Action research projects can generate
propositional knowledge but claims to such knowledge are often weak (Foreman-Peck &
Murray, 2007); the studies reviewed here appear, on the whole, to have also generated
much procedural, acquaintance and attitudinal knowledge. For example, Black (1998)
reported how pupils’ self-esteem was raised and acquainted readers with her class, focusing
particularly on two pupils. She articulated her values saying, for instance, ‘I have always
tried to create in my class an atmosphere of trust, acceptance, tolerance and respect for
one another’ (p. 1). Her report presented richly variegated knowledge, which, I believe, has
more to offer practitioners than purely propositional knowledge. It is trustworthy because
it details changes clearly and self-critically, and worth publishing also because it analyses
a substantial and committed attempt to tackle a significant practitioner problem.
If an accumulation of such knowledge is to be developed through action research,
practitioner-researchers might benefit from three things: a good understanding of
action research, a focused use of research literature and a defensible position with
regard to data analysis and the generation of trustworthy findings. First, Somekh’s
methodological principles can provide good understandings of action research because,
although no report met all her principles, those which met many are more akin to
action research, as commonly understood, than those which did not. The projects
which met many principles usually did so because their focus was clearly on the
researcher’s own actions and their consequences (sometimes assisted by ‘outside’
researchers) and because they documented change over time. Second, although
action researchers might accumulate practitioner knowledge better by considering
previous, similar action research projects, the small list of references in Price &
D’Amore (2007) is evidence that there might be less need to cite substantial numbers of
social science research texts. Instead, it might be helpful for action researchers to employ
texts which carry procedural, acquaintance and attitudinal knowledge, including those
from outside the social science research field. Third, action researchers need a defensible
position with regard to data analysis and the generation of trustworthy findings. Taking place
in naturalistic settings, action research generates huge quantities of data; it is impossible to
collect and analyse everything, but it is important that data are selected, not only to provide
evidence of improvement, but also to chart the limits of the improvement. For example,
although Auh (2005) listed the repertoire that ‘most students’ could play, her account
would have been more trustworthy if it had included an analysis of how many students
played which music, and how well. Action researchers cannot make their findings more
310

trustworthy by reducing variables, but they can present clear analyses of data, involve
credible others as critical commentators, and detail the stages that they make on their
(cyclical) journeys of discovery.
Finally, although it can be difficult to present procedural, acquaintance and attitudinal
knowledge in written form, it is possible to do this more effectively in video. In a locally
produced report, Parker & Furness (2006) presented their action research outcomes as,
‘a series of video essays, some of which are profiles of individual participants, some of
which are mini-documentaries about different aspects of the work, and some of which are
resources and teaching materials’ (p. 11). The two DVDs that accompany the written report
are linked to a password-protected website which allows readers to acquire knowledge that
is easier to show than to write about. As well as being an interesting (albeit unpublished)
piece of research in its own right, it shows the potential for the future development of action
research reports in music education.
There is a large and ever-growing stock of social science research about music
education, although several writers agree that teachers rarely use research findings in
support of their own teaching (e.g. Hemsley-Brown & Sharp, 2003). There is a much smaller
corpus of action research. However, if action researchers develop their understanding of
action research, and take a more focused use of research literature and a defensible position
with regard to data analysis and the generation of trustworthy findings, they might make a
very significant contribution to music education.
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The characteristics of action research in music education

School of Education, University of Southampton, Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ

I first encountered action research as a secondary school teacher, on a part-time diploma

The social sciences position researchers as spectators of other people’s practices, in

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In many respects this is a natural extension of a teacher’s professionalism, one where

(1) integrates research and action (1a) in a series of flexible cycles

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Previous reviews of action research in music education

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The characteristics of action research in music education

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Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and

my music education individual and group other subjects. Benefits of

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The characteristics of action research in music education

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The characteristics of action research in music education

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Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and

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The characteristics of action research in music education

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Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and

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The characteristics of action research in music education

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Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and

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The characteristics of action research in music education

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Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and

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The characteristics of action research in music education

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Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and

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The characteristics of action research in music education

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Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and

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The characteristics of action research in music education

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Plan (aims, ideals, Action (and data Evaluation of consequences (and

each other about their

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The characteristics of action research in music education