 Phase Measuring Unit (PMU) / Synchrophaser

- Is a device which measures the electrical waves on an electricity grid using a common time
source for synchronization.
- Time synchronization allows synchronized real time measurements of multiple remote
measurement points on the grid.
- Measure voltages and currents at principle intersecting locations (critical substations) on a
power grid and can output accurately time-stamped voltage and current phasers.
- Application – Load shedding and other load control techniques such as demand response to
manage a power system (i.e. Directing power that is needed in real-time).
 Power Distribution Unit (PDU)

 SCADA
- Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition.

 Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) Transmission & Management Unit
(GTMU) for BBU in Huawei BTS3900.
 Baseband Unit (BBU)
- is a unit that processes baseband in telecommunication systems.
- Baseband/Low Pass Filter refers to the original frequency range of a transmission signal
before it is modulated.
- A typical wireless telecom station consists of the baseband processing unit and the RF
processing unit (Remote Radio Unit – RRU).
- The Baseband Unit (BBU) is placed in the equipment room and connected with RRU via
optical fiber.
 Surge Reference Equalizer

 Plesiochronus Digital Hierarchy (PDH)

- Is a technology used in telecom networks to transport large quantities of data over digital
transport equipment such as fiber optics and microwave radio systems.

 Sub-Network Connection Protection (SNCP)

- Is a dedicated protection mechanism that can be used to protect a portion of a path
(between two NE) or the full end-to-end path.
- Redirects/reroutes the signal path enabling the best direction node traffic to be used.

 Radio Transmission Node (RTN)

 Radio Network Controller (RNC)

 - Is a governing element in the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
radio access network (UTRAN) and is responsible for controlling node Bs that are
connected to it.
- Is the encryption point where user data is sent to and from the mobile.

 Etymology – an account of the origin and historical developments of a word.

 Onomastics – The branch of lexicology devoted to the study of names and naming, especially the
origin of names.
 Lexicology is the part of linguistics that studies words. This may include their nature and
function as symbols, their meaning, the relationship of their meaning to epistemology in general,
and the rules of their composition from smaller elements (morphemes such as the English -
ed marker for past or un- for negation; and phonemes as basic sound units).

 Diacritic – is a glyph added to a letter.

 Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

- are standardized protocols that transfer multiple digital bit
streams synchronously over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light-
emitting diodes (LEDs). 
- The method was developed to replace the plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) system
for transporting large amounts of telephone calls and data traffic over the same fiber
without synchronization problems.
- are essentially the same, were originally designed to transport circuit
mode communications (e.g., DS1, DS3) from a variety of different sources, but they were
primarily designed to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded
in PCM format.

 Pulse-code modulation (PCM)
- is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the standard form
of digital audio in computers, compact discs, digital telephony and other digital audio
applications.
- A PCM stream has two basic properties that determine the stream's fidelity to the original
analog signal: the sampling rate, which is the number of times per second that samples
are taken; and the bit depth, which determines the number of possible digital values that
can be used to represent each sample.

 In GSM networks, Control Channels can be broadly divided into 3 categories; Broadcast

Control Channel (BCCH), Common Control Channel (CCCH), and Dedicated Control
Channels (DCCH).

 Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)

- The BCCH is transmitted at constant power at all times, and all MS that may seek to use
it to measure its signal strength. “Dummy” bursts are transmitted to ensure continuity
when there is no BCCH carrier traffic.
 Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH)
- This is transmitted frequently on the BCCH timeslot and allows the mobile to
synchronize its own frequency to that of the transmitting base site. The FCCH may only
be sent during timeslot 0 on the BCCH carrier frequency and therefore it acts as a flag to
the mobile to identify Timeslot 0.

 Synchronization Channel (SCH)

- The SCH carries the information to enable the MS to synchronize to the Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) frame structure and know the timing of the individual
timeslots.

 Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)

- is a single timeslot on an RF carrier that is used to convey eight Stand-alone Dedicated
Control Channels (SDCCH).

 Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channels (SDCCH).

- A single MS for call setup, authentication, location updating and SMS point to point use
a SDCCH.

 The four most common channel combination are listed below:

1. Full Rate Traffic Channel Combination – TCH8/FACCH + SACCH
2. Broadcast Channel Combination – BCCH + CCCH
3. Dedicated Channel Combination – SDCCH8 + SACCH8
4. Combined Channel Combination – BCCH+CCCH+SDCCH4+SACCH4

 Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)

- Conveys power control and timing information in the downlink direction (towards the
MS) and Receive Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), and link quality reports in the
uplink direction.

 Common Control Channel (CCCH)

-is responsible for transferring control information between all mobiles and the BTS. This
is necessary for the implementation of “call origination” and “call paging” functions. 

  Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)

- The FACCH is transmitted instead of a TCH. The FACCH ‘‘steals” the TCH burst and
inserts its own information. The FACCH is used to carry out user authentication,
handovers, and immediate assignment.

 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

 - is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction diode that emits light when
activated. When a suitable current is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine
with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect
is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of
the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.

 Block Up converter (BUC)
- is used in the transmission (uplink) of satellite signals. It converts a band
of frequencies from a lower frequency to a higher frequency. Modern BUCs convert from
the L band to Ku band, C band and Ka band.
- Most BUCs use phase-locked loop local oscillators and require an external
10 MHz frequency reference to maintain the correct transmit frequency.
- BUCs are generally used in conjunction with low-noise block converters (LNB). The
BUC, being an up-converting device, makes up the "transmit" side of the system, while
the LNB is the down-converting device and makes up the "receive" side. An example of a
system utilizing both a BUC and an LNB is a VSAT system, used
for bidirectional Internet access via satellite.

 Low-noise block downconverter (LNB)

- is the receiving device mounted on satellite dishes used for satellite TV reception, which
collects the radio waves from the dish and converts them to a signal which is sent through
a cable to the receiver inside the building.
- The LNB is a combination of low-noise amplifier, frequency mixer, local
oscillator and intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier.

 Phase-locked Loop (PLL)

- is a control system that generates an output signal whose phase is related to the phase of
an input signal.
- There are several different types; the simplest is an electronic circuit consisting of
a variable frequency oscillator and a phase detector in a feedback loop.
- The oscillator generates a periodic signal, and the phase detector compares the phase of
that signal with the phase of the input periodic signal, adjusting the oscillator to keep the
phases matched.

 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

- is an Internet Standard protocol for collecting and organizing information about managed
devices on IP networks and for modifying that information to change device behavior. 
- Devices that typically support SNMP include cable modems, routers, switches, servers,
workstations, printers, and more.

 E1 Carrier
 - The E-carrier is a member of the series of carrier systems developed for digital
transmission of many simultaneous telephone calls by time-division multiplexing. 
- An E1 link operates over two separate sets of wires, usually unshielded twisted
pair (balanced cable) or using coaxial (unbalanced cable).
- The line data rate is 2.048 Mbit/s (full duplex, i.e. 2.048 Mbit/s downstream and
2.048 Mbit/s upstream) which is split into 32 timeslots, each being allocated 8 bits in
turn.
- The E1 frame defines a cyclical set of 32 time slots of 8 bits. The time slot 0 is devoted to
transmission management and time slot 16 for signaling; the rest were assigned originally
for voice/data transport.

 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)

- is a type of data-carrying technique for high-performance telecommunications networks. 
- MPLS directs data from one network node to the next based on short path labels rather
than long network addresses, avoiding complex lookups in a routing table.
- The labels identify virtual links (paths) between distant nodes rather than endpoints.
- MPLS is a scalable, protocol-independent transport. In an MPLS network, data packets
are assigned labels (IP Destination Networks; other paramters – Quality of Service (QoS,
source addresses, etc)).
- Labels usually correspond to Layer 3 (Networking) destination addresses (destination-
based routing).
- Packet-forwarding decisions are made solely on the contents of this label, without the
need to examine the packet itself. This allows one to create end-to-end circuits across any
type of transport medium, using any protocol. 
- MPLS operates at a layer that is generally considered to lie between traditional
definitions of OSI Layer 2 (data link layer) and Layer 3 (network layer), and thus is often
referred to as a layer 2.5 protocol.
- It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic, including IP packets, as well as
native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames.
- MPLS helps reduce the number of routing lookups, possibly changes the forwarding
criteria, and eliminates the need to run a particular routing protocol on all the devices.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
- Is a switching technique used by telecommunication networks that uses TDM to encode
data into small, fixed-sized cells.
- Is the core protocol used over SONET backbone of the integrated digital services
network (ISDN).
- Creates fixed routes between two points before data transfer begins, which differs from
TCP/IP where data is divided into packets, each of which takes a different route to get to
its destination.
- A virtual circuit or connection must be established before the two end points can actually
exchange data.
 Label Switch Router
- An MPLS router that performs routing based only on the label is called a label switch
router (LSR) or transit router. This is a type of router located in the middle of an
MPLS network. It is responsible for switching the labels used to route packet.
  Label Edge Router
- A label edge router (LER, also known as edge LSR) is a router that operates at the edge
of an MPLS network and acts as the entry and exit points for the network. LERs push an
MPLS label onto an incoming packet and pop it off an outgoing packet.
 Open Systems Interconnection Model (OSI Model)
- is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of
a telecommunication or computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure
and technology.

OSI Model

Protocol data
Layer Function[3]
unit (PDU)

7. Application High-level APIs, including resource sharing, remote file access

Translation of data between a networking service and an application;

6. Presentation including character encoding, data
Data compression and encryption/decryption
Host
layer
s Managing communication sessions, i.e. continuous exchange of
5. Session information in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions
between two nodes

Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network,

4. Transport Segment, Datagram including segmentation, acknowledgement and multiplexing

Structuring and managing a multi-node network,

3. Network Packet including addressing, routing and traffic control

Medi
a Reliable transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a
layer 2. Data link Frame physical layer
s

1. Physical Symbol Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium

 Private Branch Exchange

 - is a telephone exchange or switching system that serves a private organization and performs
concentration of central office lines or trunks to provide intercommunication between a large
number of telephone stations in the organization..
- Its intercommunication ability allows two or more stations to directly connect while not using
the public switched telephone network.
- Each PBX-connected device, such as a telephone, a fax machine, or a computer modem, is
often referred to as an extension and has a designated extension telephone number that may or
may not be mapped automatically to the numbering plan of the central office and the
telephone number block allocated to the PBX.
 Multiplexing
- Is a method by which multiple analog or digital signals are combined into one signal over
a shared medium.

 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)

- is a communications protocol for signaling and controlling multimedia communication
sessions in applications of Internet telephony for voice and video calls, in private IP
telephone systems, as well as in instant messaging over Internet Protocol(IP) networks.

 Session Description Protocol (SDP)

- is a format for describing streaming media communications parameters.
- is used for describing multimedia communication sessions for the purposes of session
announcement, session invitation, and parameter negotiation. 

  Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP)

- is a network protocol for delivering audio and video over IP networks.
- is used extensively in communication and entertainment systems that involve streaming
media, such as telephony, video teleconference applications
including WebRTC, television services and web-based push-to-talk features.
- is designed for end-to-end, real-time, transfer of streaming media. 
 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
- is a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video,
data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched
telephone network.
- Circuit switched telephone network system, but also allows access to packet switched
networks.

 Preamble
- In digital communication, preamble is a sequence of known bits sent in each frame. It is
used for frame synchronization such as in Ethernet frames, as well as for channel
estimation.
 MSISDN
- is a number uniquely identifying a subscription in a GSM or a UMTS mobile network.
- it is the mapping of the telephone number to the SIM card in a mobile/cellular phone.
- Mobile Station International Subscriber Directory Number or Mobile Subscriber ISDN
Number.
 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
 - is used to identify the user of a cellular network and is a unique identification associated
with all cellular networks.
- It is also used for acquiring other details of the mobile in the home location
register (HLR) or as locally copied in the visitor location register.
- To prevent eavesdroppers identifying and tracking the subscriber on the radio interface,
the IMSI is sent as rarely as possible and a randomly generated TMSI is sent instead.
 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
- is the identity that is most commonly sent between the mobile and the network.
- TMSI is randomly assigned by the VLR to every mobile in the area, the moment it is
switched on.
- The number is local to a location area, and so it has to be updated each time the mobile
moves to a new geographical area.
- A key use of the TMSI is in paging a mobile. "Paging" is the one-to-one communication
between the mobile and the base station.
 International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)
- is a number, usually unique, to identify 3GPP and iDEN mobile phones, as well as
some satellite phones. 
-  It is usually found printed inside the battery compartment of the phone, but can also be
displayed on-screen.
- The IMEI number is used by a GSM network to identify valid devices and therefore can
be used for stopping a stolen phone from accessing that network.
- The IMEI is only used for identifying the device and has no permanent or semi-
permanent relation to the subscriber.
 Unstructured Supplementary Service Data (USSD)
- sometimes referred to as "Quick Codes" or "Feature codes".
- is a communications protocol used by GSM cellular telephones to communicate with
the mobile network operator's computers.
- USSD can be used for WAP browsing, prepaid callback service, mobile-money services,
location-based content services, menu-based information services, and as part of
configuring the phone on the network.
 Unified Gateway (UGW)
 Destination-Based Routing (DBR)
- Does not provide any mechanism for load balancing across unequal paths.
- Is needed on every hop.
 Policy-Based Routing (PBR)
- can be used to forward packets based on other parameters but is not a scalable solution.
- Could be used to select some packets and route those along the backup link. Although not
possible in high volume traffic due to performance limitations.
 Call Detail Record (CDR)
- Provides metadata on how a specific phone number and/or user is utilizing the phone
system. Metadata includes:
 When the call took place. (Date and time)
 How long the call lasted. (In minutes)
 Who called whom (source and destination phone numbers)
 What kind of call was made (inbound, outbound, toll-free)
 How much the call cost (Based on a per minute rate)
 - can also include SMS messaging metadata and other official communications
transmission.
- Allows phone companies to generate phone bills and lets you keep definite records of
how and when your phone system was used.
 Voice Over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
- Offer free SIP to SIP calling. This is when a VoIP phone calls another VoIP phone
without ever going through the Public Switch Telephone Network (PSTN).
 Session Control Protocol (SCP)
- SCP is a simple protocol which lets a server and client have multiple conversations over a
single TCP connection.
 Received Total Wide band Power (RTWP)
- Is the level of noise within the frequency band of any cell or the uplink interference.
 Uplink Interference
- is due to a number of reasons like number of users (Most common reason), conditions of
radio connection type, etc.
 Unicast Stream
- Sends IP packets to a single recipient on a network.
 If a streaming video is to be distributed to a single destination, then you would
start a Unicast stream by setting the destination IP address and port on the
Automated Voice Network (AVN) equal to the destination’s values.
- One sender, one receiver.
 Multicast Stream
- sends IP packets to a group of hosts on a network.
 If you want to view the stream at multiple concurrent locations, then you would
set the AVN’s destination IP address to a valid Multicast IP address (224.0.0.0 –
239.255.255.255). The first octet 224.xxx.xxx.xxx is generally reserved for
administration.
 Virtual Switch Interface (VSI) recommends setting the first octet to 225 and the
remaining 3 octets to AVN’s IP address.
 For example, if the AVN’s IP address is 192.168.1.53, then set the
destination IP address to 225.168.1.53 for multicast streaming.
 Broadcast
- Is just one sender but the information is sent to all connected receivers.
- Supported by most LANs (e.g. Ethernet) and may be used to send the same message to
call computers on the LAN.
 Medium Access Control (MAC) destination address
- Is used to identify the source and destination of each frame sent by the Ethernet.
- Used to identify a broadcast packet (sent to all connected computers in a broadcast
domain) or a multicast packet.
 Electronic Voucher Distribution (EVD) system
 LOS – Loss of signal
- Signal not received.
 LOF – Loss of framing
- Packets are not getting through frames correctly.
 AIS – Alarm Indicator Signal
- The far end isn’t getting through framed correctly and is indicating the back.
 RAI – Remote Alarm Indicator.
- The far end isn’t getting an error and is signaling it back.
 MSC – Main Switching Centre
- is mostly associated with communications switching functions, such as cell set-up,
release and routing.
- Also performs routing of SMS messages, conference calls, fax and service billing as well
as interfacing with other networks such as with PSTN.
 SMSC – Short Message Service Centre
- is an element in a GSM network responsible for the delivery of short messages (SMS).
- All messages are sent to the SMSC.
 GMSC – Gateway Mobile Switching Centre.
- used to route calls outside the mobile network.
- GMSC or gateway MSC connects the PSTN or other networks to the current operating
MSC for routing the calls from other operator to the current serving operator.
 PSTN – Public Switched Telephone Network
- Refers to the international telephone system that uses copper wires to carry analog voice
data.
- Consists of a collection of individual telephones that are hardwired to a public exchange.
 AUC – Authentication Centre
- Is a function in a GSM network used for the authentication of a mobile subscriber that
wants to be connected to the network.
- Authentication is done by identification and verification of the validity of the SIM.
 MSI – Mobile Subscriber Identity

 EIR – Equipment Identity Register

- is a database that contains a record of all the mobile stations (MS) that are allowed in a
network as well a database of all equipment that is banned.
 SGSN – Serving General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) Support Node
- It is responsible for handling all packet switched data within the network.
- Perform the same functions as the MSC for voice traffic.
 GGSN – Gateway GPRS Support Node
- Is a main component of the GPRS network.
- Is responsible for the networking between the GPRS network and external packet
switched networks.
- Keeps a record of active mobile users and the SGSN the mobile users are attached to.
- Responsible for billing.
 GPRS – General Packet Radio Service
 IMS – IP Multimedia Subsystem / IP Multimedia Core Network Subsystem
- Is an architectural frame for delivering IP multimedia services.
- Examples; Telephony, fax, e-mail, internet access, web services, VoIP, instant messaging
(IM), voice conference sessions and video on demand (VoD).
 UPEU – Universal Power and Environment Interface Unit
- Is a power module used for converting -48V input power into +12V DC power and then
distributing the power to other boards in BBU.
- A BBU3900 or BBU3910 must be configured with a UPEU board.
 PSU – Power Supply Unit
 HCN – High Capacity Netwrok
 Metropolitan –Area Ethernet, Ethernet (MAN) or Metro Ethernet Network
- is a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) that is based on Ethernet standards.
- It is commonly used to connect subscribers to a larger service network or the internet.
 Bearer Service
- Services that are used to transfer user data and control signals between two pieces of
equipment.
 MSAN – Multi Service Access Node / Multi Service Access Gateway (MSAG)
- is a device typically installed in a telephone exchange (sometime STPs in a roadside
serving area interface cabinet) which connects customers’ telephone lines to the core
network, to provide telephone, ISDN and broadcast such as DSL all from a single
platform.
 Backhaul
- Comprises the intermediate links between the core network, or backbone network and the
small subnetworks at the edge of the entire hierarchical network.
- Generally refers to the side of the network that communicates with the global internet,
paid for at wholesale commercial access rates to or at an Ethernet exchange or other core
network access location.
 Hop
- Is a portion of a signal’s journey from source to receiver.
 Wifi
– is just a nickname for the IEEE 802.11b Direct Sequence Specification.
 OSN – Open Service Node
 DoS – Denial of Service
 MGW – Media Gateway
- Handles the voice payload.
 PBX – Private Branch Exchange
 MSS – Mobile Switching Station
 DSL – Digital Subscriber Line
- Users get high speed bandwidth connection from a phone wall jack on an existing
telephone network.
 CPRI – Common Public Radio Interface
- Allows replacement of a copper or coax cable connection between a radio transceiver
(typically located in a tower) and a base station (typically located on the ground) so the
connection can be made to a remote and more convenient location.
- Usually referred to as the Fronthaul network.
 UBBP – Universal Baseband Processing Unit
- Multiplexes baseband resources among different modes, thereby supporting multimode
concurrency.
- Provides CPRI ports for communication with RF modules and processes uplink and
downlink baseband signals.
 Synchronous Transport Module (STM)
- Is the base signal of the SDH protocol.
- Base transmission rate of SDH protocol is 155.52Mbit/s and this transmission rate is
designated as STM-1.
 - STM-1 (155Mbit/s) is 63xE1; STM-4 (622Mbit/s) is 4xSTM-1 (i.e. 253xE1) and STM-
16 (2.5Gb/s) is 4xSTM-4 (1012xE1).

 LU – Local Unit
 RSL – Received Signal Link
 Blindspot – Space not receiving network access.
 LAC – Local Area Code
 MNC – Mobile Network Code
 MCC - Mobile Country Code
 IDD – International Direct Dialing or International Subscriber Dialing (ISD)
 ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
 ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol
 Rici converts E1 traffic to IP.
 E1 Loop to test signal path between remote and local receive and transmits.

 BAM – Basic Access Module

 NTP – Network Time Protocol
- Used to synchronize computer clock times in a network.
- Communicates between clients and servers using the User Datagram Protocol on port No.
123.
- Uses a systematic, hierarchical level of clock sources for its reference.
 SFP – Small Form-Factor Pluggable
- Is a compact, hot pluggable optical module transceiver used for both telecommunication
and data communications applications.
 SDM – Subscriber Data Management
- Is a database.
- Consists of the following main features:
 HLR
 AuC
 EIR
 IPLC – International Private Leased Circuit.
- is a symmetric telecommunications line connecting two locations (countries) usually . It
is also known as a 'Private Circuit'. Unlike traditional PSTN lines it does not have a
telephone number, each side of the line being permanently connected to the other. Leased
lines can be used for telephone, data or Internet services.
- IPLCs are usually TDM circuits that use Time Division Multiplexing to utilize the same
circuit amongst many customers.  The nature of TDM requires the use of a CSU/DSU
and a router.  Usually the router will include the CSU/DSU.  The most commonly used
routers are made by Cisco or Adtran.
 CSU/DSU – Channel Service Unit/Data Service Unit.
- is a hardware device about the size of an external modem that converts a digital
data frame from the communications technology used on a local area network (LAN) into
a frame appropriate to a wide-area network (WAN) and vice versa.
 - The Channel Service Unit (CSU) receives and transmits signals from and to the WAN
line and provides a barrier for electrical interference from either side of the unit. The
CSU can also echo loopback signals from the phone company for testing purposes.
- The Data Service Unit (DSU) manages line control, and converts input and output
between RS-232C, RS-449, or V.xx frames from the LAN and the time-division
multiplexed (TDM) DSX frames on the T-1 line. The DSU manages timing errors and
signal regeneration. 
- The DSU provides a modem-like interface between the computer as Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE) and the CSU.
 RS-232C - is the interface that your computer uses to talk to and exchange data with your modem
and other serial devices. Somewhere in your PC, typically on a Universal Asynchronous
Receiver/Transmitter (UART) chip on your motherboard, the data from your computer is
transmitted to an internal or external modem (or other serial device) from its Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE) interface. 
 UART – Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter.
- A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter (UART) is a microchip that performs
serial-to-parallel conversion of data received from peripheral devices and parallel-to-
serial conversion of data coming from the CPU for transmission to peripheral devices.
The UART chip has control capabilities and the ability to send an interrupt request to the
processor that can be tailored in a way that minimizes the software management of the
communication link between a computer and a peripheral device.
 DTE – Data Terminal Equipment.
- is a computer or communication device that generates or is the final destination of data. A
device that is labeled as a DTE device is a device that has all the implemented all the
EIA232 standards and is commonly the computer or terminal.
 IEPL – International Ethernet Private Line.
- The IEPL is a true Ethernet circuit from one end to the other.  This means that you can
operate the circuit without the need for a router or CSU/DSU by configuring the circuit
on the MAC address level. 
- In addition, the pure Ethernet circuit will provide less jitter and higher performance than
the IPLC.
 ADSL – Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line
- is a type of digital subscriber line (DSL) technology, a data communications technology
that enables faster data transmission over copper telephone lines than a
conventional voiceband modem can provide.
- In ADSL, bandwidth and bit rate are said to be asymmetric, meaning greater toward the
customer premises (downstream) than the reverse (upstream). Providers usually market
ADSL as a service for consumers for Internet access for primarily downloading content
from the Internet, but not serving content accessed by others.
- It works by using the frequency spectrum above the band used by voice telephone calls.
- With a DSL filter, often called splitter, the frequency bands are isolated, permitting a
single telephone line to be used for both ADSL service and telephone calls at the same
time. ADSL is generally only installed for short distances from the telephone
exchange (the last mile), typically less than 4 km (2 mi).
- At the telephone exchange, the line generally terminates at a digital subscriber line access
multiplexer (DSLAM) where another frequency splitter separates the voice
 band signal for the conventional phone network. Data carried by the ADSL are typically
routed over the telephone company's data network and eventually reach a
conventional Internet Protocol network.
 APNG-2
- Submarine communications cable was constructed to link Papua New Guinea directly to
Australia and indirectly to New Zealand and the rest of the world since 2006.
 PPC-1 – PIPE Pacific Cable 1
- A submarine cable system consists of two segments of digital fiber-optic cable.
1. Australian-Guam Trunk – connecting Sydney, Australia with Piti.
2. PNG Spur, connecting Madang, PNG with a branching unit located on the
Australian-Guam trunk.
- The Australian-Guam trunk of the PPC-1 consists of 2 optical fiber pairs, with a design
capacity of 96 wavelengths (10Gbps) on each fiber pair, for a total design capacity of
1.92Tbps.
- The initial Australian-Guam trunk provides a total of 140Gbps of capacity.
- The initial configuration of the PNG Spur provides a total of 20Gbps of capacity; 10Gbps
on the PNG-Guam route and 10Gbps on the PNG-Australia route.
- Launched on Jan 14th 2008.
 DSLAM – Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer is a device which is used to apply
multiplexing operations to transform the signals received from Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
connections on a high speed line.
 WMPT – Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) Main Processes and
Transmission Unit.
- It is the BBU3900 main control and transmission board that processes the signals and
manages the resources for other boards.
 LMPT – Long Term Evolution (LTE) Main Processes and Transmission
- Provides two Fast Ethernet (FE)/Gigabit Ethernet (GE) electrical RJ45 and two FE/GE
SFP optical interfaces.
 XPIC – Cross Polarization Interference Cancelling
 SAE – System Architecture Evolution
 UMTS – Universal Mobile Telecommunications System.
 Channel assignment strategies are classified into 2 types:
1. Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA)
2. Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA)
 FCA
- Each cell is allocated a fixed number of voice channels.
- Communication within the cell can only be made with the designated unused channels of
that particular cell.
- Calls are blocked and subscribers have to wait if all the channels are occupied.
 DCA
- Channels are temporarily assigned for use in cells for the duration of the call.
- Each time a call attempt is made from a cell, the corresponding BS requests a channel
from the MSC.
 The MSC then allocates channels to the requesting BS.
 - To avoid co-channel interference, any channel that is in use in one cell can only be
reassigned simultaneously to another cell in the system if the distance between the two
cells is larger than the minimum reuse distance.
- Reduces the likelihood of blocking and even increasing the trunking capacity of the
network as all of the channels are available to all cells.
 Fa – Fast Ethernet interfaces
- 0/0/0 or a/b/c
 a is the main slot on the motherboard
 b (optional) sub-slot on that main slot
 c is the port number of the card in the slot.
 Bandwidth Utilization Techniques
1. Multiplexing
- Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
- Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
- Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
- Wide Division Multiplexing (WDM)
2. Multiple Access Schemes
- Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
- Time Division Multiple Access (TMDA)
- Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – Spread Spectrum is used in this.
- Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
- Interleave Division Multiple Access (IDMA)
 Modulation techniques are divided into 4 parts:
1. Analog Modulation
- Typically used for AM/FM Radio and short wave Broadcasting.
2. Digital Modulation
- Involves transmission of binary signals (0s & 1s)
- This method is divided into single career modulation by which the career occupies the
entire bandwidth (i.e. amplitude, frequency and phase), and a multi career scheme that
modulates and transmits different data on multiple careers.
- Modulation methods for digital data:
 Amplitude Modulation
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
 Phase Modulation
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK)
 Offset Phase Shift Keying (OPSK)
 Frequency Modulation
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Continuous Phase Modulation
 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
  Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CPFSK)
3. Spread Spectrum Modulation
- Analog
 Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
- Digital
 Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 RSSI – Received Signal Strength Indication
- is the relative signal strength in a wireless environment, in arbitrary units.
- Is an indication of the power level being received by the receiving radio after the antenna
and possible cable loss.
- The higher the RSSI value, the stronger the signal. When measured in negative numbers,
the number that is closer to zero usually means better signal. E.g. -50 is a better signal,
-75 is reasonable, -100 is no signal at all.