Hypothyroidism in Pregnancy WHAT IS THE THYROID GLAND? however, remains dependent on the mother for ingestion of adequate amounts of iodine, which is essential to make The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland the thyroid hormones. The World Health Organization that is normally located in the lower front of the neck. recommends iodine intake of 250 micrograms/day The thyroid’s job is to make thyroid hormones, which are during pregnancy to maintain adequate thyroid hormone secreted into the blood and then carried to every tissue production. Because iodine intakes in pregnancy are in the body. Thyroid hormones help the body use energy, currently low in the United States, the ATA recommends stay warm and keep the brain, heart, muscles, and other that US women who are planning to become pregnant, organs working as they should. who are pregnant, or breastfeeding, should take a daily WHAT ARE THE NORMAL CHANGES IN supplement containing 150 mcg of iodine. THYROID FUNCTION ASSOCIATED WITH HYPOTHYROIDISM & PREGNANCY PREGNANCY? WHAT ARE THE MOST COMMON CAUSES OF HORMONE CHANGES. Thyroid function tests change HYPOTHYROIDISM DURING PREGNANCY? during normal pregnancy due to the influence of two main Overall, the most common cause of hypothyroidism is the hormones: human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and autoimmune disorder known as Hashimoto’s thyroiditis estrogen. Because hCG can weakly stimulate the thyroid, (see Hypothyroidism brochure ). Hypothyroidism can the high circulating hCG levels in the first trimester may occur during pregnancy due to the initial presentation of result in a low TSH that returns to normal throughout the Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, inadequate treatment of a woman duration of pregnancy. Estrogen increases the amount already known to have hypothyroidism from a variety of of thyroid hormone binding proteins, and this increases causes, or over-treatment of a hyperthyroid woman with the total thyroid hormone levels but the “Free” hormone anti-thyroid medications. Approximately, 2.5% of women (the amount that is not bound and can be active for use) will have a TSH of greater than 6 mIU/L (slightly elevated) usually remains normal. The thyroid is functioning normally and 0.4% will have a TSH greater than 10 mIU/L during if the TSH and Free T4 remain in the trimester-specific pregnancy. normal ranges throughout pregnancy. THYROID SIZE CHANGES. The thyroid gland can WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF HYPOTHYROIDISM increase in size during pregnancy (enlarged thyroid = TO THE MOTHER? goiter). However, pregnancy-associated goiters occur Untreated, or inadequately treated, hypothyroidism has much more frequently in iodine-deficient areas of the increased risk of miscarriage, and has been associated world. It is relatively uncommon in the United States. If with maternal anemia, myopathy (muscle pain, weakness), very sensitive imaging techniques (ultrasound) are used, congestive heart failure, pre-eclampsia, placental it is possible to detect an increase in thyroid volume in abnormalities, and postpartum hemorrhage (bleeding). some women. This is usually only a 10-15% increase in These complications are more likely to occur in women with size and is not typically apparent on physical examination severe hypothyroidism. Some risks also appear to be higher by the physician. However, sometimes a significant goiter in women with antibodies against thyroid peroxidase (TPO). may develop and prompt the doctor to measure tests of Women with mild hypothyroidism may have no symptoms or thyroid function (see Thyroid Function Test Brochure). attribute symptoms they have to the pregnancy. WHAT IS THE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE THYROID FUNCTION OF THE MOTHER AND THE BABY? For the first 18-20 weeks of pregnancy, the baby is completely dependent on the mother for the production of thyroid hormone. By mid-pregnancy, the baby’s thyroid begins to produce thyroid hormone on its own. The baby,
Hypothyroidism in Pregnancy WHAT ARE THE RISKS OF MATERNAL there are no TPO antibodies (i.e. negative), current ATA recommendations are less strong and suggest that HYPOTHYROIDISM TO THE BABY? treatment ‘may be considered’ when TSH is between Thyroid hormone is critical for brain development in the 2.5-10.0 mIU/L. These recommendations are based on baby. Children born with congenital hypothyroidism the degree of evidence that exists that treatment with (no thyroid function at birth) can have severe cognitive, levothyroxine would be beneficial. neurological and developmental abnormalities if the condition is not recognized and treated promptly. With early HOW SHOULD A WOMAN WITH treatment, these developmental abnormalities largely can HYPOTHYROIDISM BE TREATED DURING be prevented. Consequently, all newborn babies in the United States are screened for congenital hypothyroidism PREGNANCY? so they can be treated with thyroid hormone replacement The goal of treating hypothyroidism in a pregnant woman therapy as soon as possible. is adequate replacement of thyroid hormone. Ideally, hypothyroid women should have their levothyroxine dose Untreated severe hypothyroidism in the mother can optimized prior to becoming pregnant. Levothyroxine lead to impaired brain development in the baby. Recent requirements frequently increase during pregnancy, studies have suggested that mild developmental brain usually by 25 to 50 percent. Hypothyroid women taking abnormalities also may be present in children born to levothyroxine should independently increase their dose women who had mild untreated hypothyroidism during by 20%–30% as soon as pregnancy is diagnosed and pregnancy. At this time, there is no general consensus of should notify their doctor for prompt testing and further opinion regarding screening all women for hypothyroidism evaluation. One means of accomplishing the dose increase during pregnancy. However, the ATA recommends checking is to take two additional tablets weekly of their usual daily a woman’s TSH as soon as pregnancy is confirmed in levothyroxine dosage. Thyroid function tests should be women at high risk for thyroid disease, such as those checked approximately every 4 weeks during the first half with prior treatment for hyper- or hypothyroidism, a family of pregnancy to ensure that the woman has normal thyroid history of thyroid disease, a personal history of autoimmune function throughout pregnancy. As soon as delivery of the disease, and those with a goiter. child occurs, the woman may go back to her usual pre- Women with established hypothyroidism should have a TSH pregnancy dose of levothyroxine. It is also important to test as soon as pregnancy is confirmed. They also should recognize that prenatal vitamins contain iron and calcium immediately increase their levothyroxine dose, because that can impair the absorption of thyroid hormone from thyroid hormone requirements increase during pregnancy. the gastrointestinal tract. Consequently, levothyroxine and (See below for specific dosing recommendations.) If new prenatal vitamins should not be taken at the same time and onset hypothyroidism has been detected, the woman should be separated by at least 4 hours. should be treated with levothyroxine to normalize her TSH values (see Hypothyroidism brochure). SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR WOMEN WITH A HISTORY OF GRAVES’ DISEASE WHO SHOULD BE TREATED FOR In addition to the dosing and testing considerations HYPOTHYROIDISM DURING PREGNANCY? explained in this brochure, women with a history of Women found to have a TSH level greater than 10 mIU/L Graves’ disease who were treated with radioiodine (RAI) in the first trimester of pregnancy should be treated or surgical thyroidectomy should also have Graves’ for hypothyroidism. Conversely, women with a TSH of antibodies (TRAb) tested early in pregnancy to assess the 2.5 or less, do not need levothyroxine treatment. For risk of passing antibodies on to the fetus. If antibodies are women with TSH measured between these (2.5-10), ATA elevated, follow-up testing is recommended at weeks 18- recommendations for treatment vary and may depend 22, and if antibodies are still elevated, additional follow-up on whether or not the mother has TPO antibodies. When is recommended at weeks 30-34 to evaluate the need for TPO antibodies are positive, treatment is recommended fetal and neonatal monitoring. when the TSH is above 4 and should be considered when the TSH is between 2.5-4.0. However, when
