 CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES

The sources of energy used for mass generation of power called conventional sources of energy
These are
>>>>>>>Thermal, Hydro power and nuclear power

The non-conventional sources of energy used for generating power in lesser magnitude
are as follows:
>>>>>>>Solar energy, wind power, tidal power, Bio-Gas, Magneto hydro dynamic plant,
Geo-thermal energy.

Base Load and Peak Load on Power Station

The changing load on the power station makes its load curve of variable nature. Fig. 3.13. shows
the
typical load curve of a power station. It is clear that load on the
power station varies from time to time. However, a close look
at the load curve reveals that load on the power station can be,

considered in two parts, namely;

(i) Base load
(ii) Peak load
(i) Base load. The unvarying load which occurs almost
the whole day on the station is known as base load.
Referring to the load curve of Fig. 3.13, it is clear that
20 MW of load has to be supplied by the station at all times of
day and night i.e. throughout 24 hours. Therefore, 20 MW is
the base load of the station. As base load on the station is
almost of constant nature, therefore, it can be suitably supplied (as discussed in the next Article)
without facing the problems of variable load.
(ii) Peak load. The various peak demands of load over and above the base load of the station
is known as peak load.
Referring to the load curve of Fig. 3.13, it is clear that there are peak demands of load excluding
base load. These peak demands of the station generally form a small part of the total load and
may occur throughout the day

 Why Load Shedding?

Answer:-Load shedding simply stated is a controlled temporary way of cutting power to parts of
the country when there is not enough electricity to meet the needs of customers. This is as a
result of a shortage of capacity and a high demand for electricity.

 Why CT sencondary is short circuited.Not Open?

Answer:- As we know that Current Transformers (CTs) are always used with secondary winding
connected with Ammeter, Relays or Wattmeter Coils. A precaution which shall always be taken
is that Never open the secondary winding circuit of a Current Transformer while its Primary
Winding is energized.

If the secondary winding circuit of a CT is kept open then it will lead to severe consequence to
the personnel opening the CT secondary and to the CT itself. The question arises why?

To understand this, first we should know the basic difference between a Power Transformer and
a CT. The basic difference between a Power Transformer and a CT is that, in Power Transformer
the primary current is the reflection of the secondary current by N1I1 = N2I2while in CT the
primary current is dependent on the load current or line current as Ct is connected in series with
the line. So primary current of CT (assuming constant line current) is constant irrespective of
whether the secondary of CT is connected with burden or not.

During normal operation of CT, the primary and secondary winding produces mmf which by
lenze’s law opposes each other. As the secondary mmf is slightly less than the primary mmf, the
net mmf is small. This net mmf is the working / magnetizing mmf of the core of CT.

Now, in case secondary winding is kept open then secondary current will be zero while the
primary current of CT will remain same. Therefore the opposing mmf of secondary will no
longer exist. Hence the net mmf is due to primary current only i.e. N1I1 which is very large. This
large mmf will produce large flux in the core and will saturate the core. Again, due to large flux
in the core the flux linkage of secondary winding will be large which in turn will produce a large
voltage across the secondary terminals of the CT. This large voltage across the secondary
terminals will be very dangerous and will lead to the insulation failure and there is a good chance
that the person who is opening the CT secondary while primary is energized will die due to
shock.
Also, because of excessive core flux, the hysteresis and eddy current loss will be very high and
the CT will get overheated. As CT is oil filled, because of overheating, the oil of CT will get boil
and start to vaporize. Because of vaporization of CT oil, the CT housing will get pressurized and
blast. This blasting will lead to fire and smoke. Again, it is not the end here but due to smoke, the
nearby lines will trip due to earth fault which may trip the Power Generating Station.

So, see how a small mistake causes a series of dangerous consequences.

 Difference between ISOLATOR and CIRCUIT BREAKER?

A circuit breaker is an automatic switch, which is an on-load device, designed using electromechanical
techniques to prevent power overload damage or short circuits. A circuit breaker has a solenoid inside,
and it is kept at a certain voltage level, to keep the triggering mechanism in balance. Once a fault is
observed in the circuit, such as an overload or a short circuit, the switch is triggered, and the current
flow is discontinued. After solving the pertaining problem in the electrical system, the circuit breaker can
be switched back to on again. Like fuses, circuit breakers also come in many different sizes and
packages, specialized to the requirements of the electrical system. At higher voltage levels, the circuit
breaker mechanism may be immersed in an insulating material, such as oil to improve the performance.
More advanced circuit breakers used in industry applications regulate interruptions by small inductive
currents, capacitive switching and asynchronous switching. They have current and a voltage rating
indicating maximum allowable current and voltage.

Isolator, on the contrary to the circuit breaker, is an off-load device and performs the task as the name
implies. It disconnects or Isolates the circuit from the main power supply. Isolators are most commonly
found in industry level electric systems.
Even though, Isolator is a switch, it is not used as a normal on off switch. It is used only when the
electrical system has to be disconnected from the main supply, to perform maintenance or related
activities, which involve direct contact with the current carrying components of machinery. Isolators
may provide additional safety features like, when switched off the trapped charge will be ground
through a ground terminal in the isolator. Isolators are normally placed after the circuit breaker allowing
the internal circuit to be disconnected from the main supply without affecting the breaker.
Isolators may be used in high voltage devices like transformers. Isolators are secured using a
locking mechanism on the outside or by a padlock to prevent inadvertent usage.
In electronics, the term isolator is used to denote a device which separates the internal circuits
from the main supply, but it is different from the Isolator switch discussed above. Using opto-
couplers an electronics circuit can be isolated such that overloads do not pass through the
circuit.

 What is Surge Absorber?

The travelling waves set up on the transmission lines by the surges may reach the terminals
apparatus and cause damage to it. The amount of damage caused not only depends upon the
amplitude of the surge but also upon the steepness of its wave front. The steeper the wave front
of the surge, the more the damage caused to the equipment. In order to reduce the steepness of
the wave front of a surge, we generally use surge absorber.
A surge absorber is a protective device which reduces the steepness of wave front of a surge
by absorbing surge energy.

 Stockbridge Damper

A Stockbridge damper is a tuned mass damper used to suppress wind-induced vibrations on

slender structures such as overhead power lines and long cantilevered signs.

 Transformer Protection and Transformer Faults?

There are different kinds of transformers such as two winding or three winding electrical power
transformers, auto transformer, regulating transformers, earthing transformers, rectifier
transformers etc. Different transformers demand different schemes of transformer protection
depending upon their importance, winding connections, earthling methods and mode of
operation etc. It is common practice to provide Buchholz relay protection to all 0.5 MVA and
above transformers. While for all small size distribution transformers, only high voltage fuses are
used as main protective device. For all larger rated and important distribution transformers, over
current protection along with restricted earth fault protection is applied. Differential protection
should be provided in the transformers rated above 5 MVA.
Nature of Transformer Faults
Although an electrical power transformer is a static device, but internal stresses arising from
abnormal system conditions, must be taken into consideration. A transformer generally suffers
from following types of transformer fault-
1. Over current due to overloads and external short circuits,
2. Terminal faults,
3. Winding faults
4. Incipient faults.
  What is Drop out Fuse?

The dropout (swing out) fuse is an expulsion type and its main function is to protect
Transformers on rural distribution network. It is also particularly useful for inaccessible Sub-
stations where indication of fusing is of advantage.

DROP- OUT FUSE [11 kv D.O. FUSE SET MEDIUM] DROP – OUT FUSE [ 11 kv D.O. FUSE SET HEAVY]

 Testing of Transformer
1.Polarity test
2. Winding resistance test
3.Open circuit test
4. Short circuit test
5. Load test
6.Routine test

 Switching sequence of ISOLATOR,CIRCUIT BREAKER and Earthing switch?

We can summarize the switching sequence flow like below

For switching off-

Open the Circuit breaker > Disconnect isolator > Engage earth switch > Lock & Tag
For switching on –
Remove Tag & Lock > Disengage earth switch > Connect isolator > Close circuit breaker

Based on Characteristic the protection relay can be categorized as-

1. Definite time relays
2. Inverse time relays with definite minimum time(IDMT)
3. Instantaneous relays.
4. IDMT with inst.
5. Stepped characteristic.
6. Programmed switches.
1. Voltage restraint over current relay.
Based on of logic the protection relay can be categorized as-

1. Differential.
2. Unbalance.
3. Neutral displacement.
4. Directional.
5. Restricted earth fault.
6. Over fluxing.
7. Distance schemes.
8. Bus bar protection.
9. Reverse power relays.
10. Loss of excitation.
11. Negative phase sequence relays etc.
Based on actuating parameter the protection relay can be categorized as-

1. Current relays.
2. Voltage relays.
3. Frequency relays.
4. Power relays etc.
Based on application the protection relay can be categorized as-

1. Primary relay.
2. Backup relay.

Some examples of Mechanical Relay are-

1. Thermal
o OT trip (Oil Temperature Trip)
o WT trip (Winding Temperature Trip)
o Bearing temp trip etc.
2. Float type
o Buchholz
o OSR
o PRV
o Water level Controls etc.
3. Pressure switches.
4. Mechanical interlocks.
5. Pole discrepancy relay.

Protection against lightning:

1. Earthing Screen
2. Overhead ground screen
3. Lightning arrester or surge diverters

Earthing Screen:-
The power stations and sub-stations generally house expensive equipment. These
stations can be protected against direct lightning strokes by providing earthing
screen. It consists of a network of copper conductors (generally called shield or
screen) mounted all over the electrical equipment in the sub-station or power
station. The shield is properly connected to earth on at least two points through
a low impedance.

24.10 Overhead Ground Wires

The most effective method of providing protection to transmission lines against
direct lightning strokes is by the use of overhead ground wires as shown in Fig.
24.7. For simplicity, one ground wire and one line conductor are shown. The
ground wires are placed above the line conductors at such positions that practically
all lightning strokes are intercepted by them (i.e. ground wires). The ground wires
are grounded at each tower or pole through as low resistance as possible. Due to
their proper location, the *ground wires will take up all the lightning strokes
instead of allowing them to line conductors.
When the direct lightning stroke occurs on the transmission line, it will be taken up
by the ground wires. The heavy lightning current (10 kA to 50 kA) from the
ground wire flows to the ground, thus protecting the line from the harmful effects
of lightning.

 What is power system?

An electric power system is a network of electrical components deployed to
supply, transfer, and use electric power. An example of an electric power system
is the grid that provides power to an extended area

 What is the importance of Electrical Energy?

Electrical energy is superior to all other forms of energy. There are many reason
for it including convenient form, easy control, cheapness and cleanliness.
What are the main components of overhead
transmission of electric power?
Transmission of electric power is the lifeline for a country.

“Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a

generating station or power plant to an electrical substation”.

Transmission towers have to carry the heavy transmission conductor at a sufficient

safe height from ground. In addition to that all towers have to sustain all kinds of
natural calamities.
  Conductors- Used to carry electrical power from generating or power stations
to distribution substation.
o Transmission higher than 132 kV poses the problem of corona discharge, which
causes significant power loss and interference with communication circuits. To
reduce this corona effect, it is preferable to use more than one conductor per
phase, or bundled conductor.
o In bundle conductor, Conductors are joined with the help of Spacers.
Note- Number of conductors in bundle conductor depend on Voltage level. It may be
2,3,4,6,8 etc.

 Spacers- It is used to establish the distance between the partial conductors of

a bundle line in order to prevent conductors from knocking together and thus
avoid damage done to conductors.

 Earth Wire- The earth wire is usually grounded (earthed) at the top of the
supporting structure, to minimize the likelihood of direct lightning strikes to
the phase conductors.
 Insulators- It is used to support the conductors and withstand both the
normal operating voltage and surges due to switching and lightning.
o Different types of insulators are used according to voltage level.

 Cross Arms- Cross arms are the holder that holds the insulator to the tower
structure. It plays a very important role since the insulators are holding the line
directly.
o In simple form, Cross-arms are the arm like equipment that used to hold the
insulator and the cable to the tower body.
 o It is used so that the conductor is maintained at certain height.
 Dampers- Due to wind, overhead transmission lines will be excited to
vibrations and oscillations that can lead to damage on the conductor.
o In order to reduce these vibrations and oscillations to an uncritical level,
dampers are installed in the overhead transmission lines.

 Tower- Towers should be self-supporting and capable of resisting all forces

due to conductor loads, unbalanced conductors, wind and ice in any direction.
o Such towers often have approximately square bases and usually four points of
contact with the ground.
o A semi-flexible tower is designed so that it can use overhead grounding wires
to transfer mechanical load to adjacent structures, if a phase conductor breaks
and the structure is subject to unbalanced loads.

Types Of Conductors Used In Overhead Power

Lines
A conductor is one of the most important components of overhead lines. Selecting a
proper type of conductor for overhead lines is as important as selecting economic
conductor size and economic transmission voltage. A good conductor should have the
following properties:
  high electrical conductivity
 high tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses
 relatively lower cost without compromising much of other properties
 lower weight per unit volume
Generally, all types of conductors are in stranded form in order to increase the flexibility.
Solid wires, except for very small cross sectional area, are very difficult to handle and,
also, they tend to crystallize at the point of support because of swinging in winds.

1. AAC : All Aluminium Conductor

2. AAAC : All Aluminium Alloy Conductor
3. ACSR : Aluminium Conductor, Steel Reinforced
4. ACAR : Aluminium Conductor, Alloy Reinforced

ACSR : Aluminium Conductor, Steel Reinforced

ACSR consists of a solid or stranded steel core with one or more layers of high purity aluminium
(aluminium 1350) wires wrapped in spiral. The core wires may be zinc coated (galvanized) steel
or aluminium coated (aluminized) steel. Galvanization or aluminization coatings are thin and are
applied to protect the steel from corrosion. The central steel core provides additional mechanical
strength and, hence, sag is significantly less than all other aluminium conductors. ACSR
conductors are available in a wide range of steel content - from 6% to 40%. ACSR with higher
steel content is selected where higher mechanical strength is required, such as river crossing.
ASCR conductors are very widely used for all transmission and distribution purposes.

 What is XLPE, Where it is used?

XLPE is the recognized abbreviation for cross-linked polyethylene. This and

other cross-linked synthetic materials, of which EPR (ethylene propylene
rubber) is a notable example, are being increasingly used as cable insulants for
a wide range of voltages.
Polyethylene has good electrical properties and in particular a low dielectric loss
factor, which gives it potential for use at much higher voltages than PVC.
Polyethylene has been and still is used as a cable insulant, but, as a
thermoplastic material, its applications are limited by thermal constraints.

Magnetizing Inrush Current:

Magnetizing inrush current in transformer is the current which is drown by a

transformer at the time of energizing the transformer. This current is transient in
nature and exists for few milliseconds. The inrush current may be up to 10 times
higher than normal rated current of transformer. Although the magnitude of inrush
current is so high but it generally does not create any permanent fault in
transformer as it exists for very small time. But still inrush current in power
transformer is a problem, because it interferes with the operation of circuits as
they have been designed to function. Some effects of high inrush include nuisance
fuse or breaker interruptions, as well as arcing and failure of primary circuit
components, such as switches. High magnetizing inrush current in transformer also
necessitate over-sizing of fuses or breakers. Another side effect of high inrush is
the injection of noise and distortion back into the mains.

Energization inrush current result of re-energization of transformer. The residual

flux in this case can be zero or depending on energization timing.
Recovery inrush current flow when transformer voltage is restored after having
been reduced by system disturbance.
Sympathetic inrush current flow when multiple transformer connected in same
line and one of them energized.