Measuring Effort in Service Organisations: July 2011
Measuring Effort in Service Organisations: July 2011
Measuring Effort in Service Organisations: July 2011
Measuring effort in service organisations
Tarun Agarwal
July 2011
CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................................... 3
EFFORT MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................................ 3
SERVICES ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3
EFFORT ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3
WORK ACTIVITY BREAKDOWN ....................................................................................................................................... 4
EFFORT MEASUREMENT VS. EMPLOYEE MONITORING ............................................................................................................ 4
BENEFITS OF EFFORT MEASUREMENT ................................................................................................................... 5
BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE .................................................................................................................................................... 5
CAPACITY UTILISATION ...................................................................................................................................................... 5
CAPACITY PLANNING ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
PRODUCTIVITY MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................................... 5
TIME‐DRIVEN ACTIVITY‐BASED COSTING / RESOURCE CONSUMPTION ACCOUNTING .................................................................... 5
EMPLOYEE EVALUATION .................................................................................................................................................... 5
IMPACT ................................................................................................................................................................ 5
EMPLOYEES .................................................................................................................................................................... 5
MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
EFFICIENCY ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
EFFECTIVENESS ............................................................................................................................................................... 6
PRODUCTIVITY ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
PROFITABILITY ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
PERFORMANCE ............................................................................................................................................................... 6
TRIPLE‐P MODEL ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................... 6
2
enabling by information technology. For the purpose
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY of this article, the following three types of service
organisations have been considered:
This white paper provides an evaluation of the need to
measure effort in service organisations. This evaluation information technology (IT) service
looks at the current problems of these organisations and providers
the effect of effort measurement on their problems. The IT‐enabled service providers
study shows that key metrics such as productivity, consulting service providers
profitability and performance are based on output without
taking into consideration the input or effort aspect. This is As the sector continues to mature, there are new
because inputs or effort in services have traditionally been demands on the management of such organisations;
difficult to measure. Recent technology advances have higher customer expectations, employee
removed this barrier. The study draws attention to the fact transparency and a constant pressure on profitability.
that measuring effort provides the missing data to allow
the organisation to take informed decisions by:
EFFORT
measuring capacity utilisation and productivity
with higher accuracy, In order to appreciate the various problems of a
giving capacity planning a scientific edge, service organisation, it is essential to understand the
improving and yet simplifying the process of concept of a service organisation. A service
costing for current or future services, organisation can be depicted as in Figure 1 below.
increasing profitability,
mitigating the subjectivity of employee The Workforce applies its time to tasks using the
performance evaluation and facilities and infrastructure provided by the
setting the ground for a transparent rewards and Management to generate revenue. The Management
penalty program. remunerates the Workforce.
Time is not the sole input of the Workforce. Input can
be in the form of ideas, behaviour, contribution to
work environment and so on. Similarly, revenue
EFFORT MANAGEMENT generation is not the only output in an organisation
as it assumes the form of production volumes, brand
building, intellectual property, etc. However, the
SERVICES primary measurable Input (or Effort) is generally
Services constitute about 60% of the world GDP and believed to be Time (every country regulates work
service organisations are the largest segment of the hours, all employers maintain attendance) and the
world economy. Services provision creates benefits most obvious Output is a completed task, what we
by facilitating either a change in customers, a change shall call a Work Unit.
in their physical possessions, or a change in their Work units have been measured with increasing
intangible assets. Services are differentiated from granularity by production systems, operations
products by their attributes as they are intangible, systems, project management systems, workflow
perishable and labour‐intensive with variable management systems, etc. Time has been more
demand. These attributes are each linked to certain difficult to measure. While it has been a long‐
singular issues of the sector – quality sampling, maintained practice of service companies to get their
economic opportunity loss, measuring input and employees to declare how their work time was spent,
forecasting capacity. automatic capture of this information has faced
Over the years, market forces and innovation have technological hurdles. Current technology however
driven a significant degree of automation and allows automated recording of the activity on
Remuneration
Input
Output
(time) Tasks
(work units)
Workforce Management
Revenue generation
3
Figure 1 : Service Organisation
individual workstations.
TOTAL TIME
WORK ACTIVITY BREAKDOWN Total
Idle Time Total Breaks
The primary input in the service industry is human
Activity
resource. As mentioned above, the workforce utilises
the collective resources of the organisation to work
on a task and generate an output. While
organisations mandate the quantity of time the
workforce should spend at work, qualifying this time
was a challenge until recently. Technology has now
addressed this challenge for environments where the
service activity is IT‐enabled, i.e. a majority of the
work is done using computers.
As represented in Figure 2, in IT‐enabled Value‐add
environments, the quality of time of an individual Standard allowances
employee can be divided into activity (employee is
working on the computer), breaks (employee is away Wastage
from the computer) and idle time (employee is on
the computer but there is absence of activity). Figure 2 : Work Activity Breakdown
Activity would cover all possible activity whether or
not it adds value to the organisation. The
EFFORT MEASUREMENT VS. EMPLOYEE
organisation needs to define standards for time
MONITORING
spent on activities that do not add value but are
nevertheless essential, such as lunch, personal breaks Time is a common factor between effort
and so on. The purpose of these standards is to serve measurement and employee monitoring. However,
as a reference point for the actual metrics. For this is the only common point and it is therefore
example, if the recorded measures exceed the essential to differentiate between Effort
standards, the variance would be considered measurement and employee monitoring (see Table 1
resource wastage. Conversely, where the recorded : Effort Measurement vs. Employee Monitoring).
measures fall below the standards to a marked
extent, there are risks attached, such as a negative
impact on the work‐life balance of employees.
Typical features Effort measurement Employee monitoring
Approach Monitoring the use of all the workstation and Monitoring the electronic
server‐based resources provided by the company communications and internet usage of
to the employee to execute a set of tasks that the employee
form part of the employee’s work objectives
Objective Measure effort of the human resource for Employee supervision and ‘policing’ with
accurate metrics on efficiency, effectiveness, declarative time sheets and intrusive
productivity, and profitability. screenshots
Principal Outcomes Behavioural change driven by internal Behavioural change driven by fear and
competition anxiety
Capacity Utilisation and Planning Security compliance* by employees
Productivity Management
Employee Evaluation
Time‐Driven Activity‐Based Costing
Resource Consumption Accounting *Screenshots actually constitute a
security risk, if accessible
Data collection Automated Manual and declarative
Dependency on employee Limited to selection of time away from the Very high due to declarative nature of
workstation data collection
Employee privacy Strictly non‐intrusive with employee privacy Highly intrusive – screenshots, screenshot
respected – no screenshots, no data collection videos, email content, internet usage
on field‐level entry blocking
Data security No process data captured Process data collected (screenshots, etc.)
raising security concerns
Table 1 : Effort Measurement vs. Employee Monitoring
4
BENEFITS OF EFFORT MEASUREMENT TIME‐DRIVEN ACTIVITY‐BASED COSTING /
RESOURCE CONSUMPTION ACCOUNTING
Besides the direct gains of accounting for the
The true cost of an activity or the consumption of a
consumption of resources, effort measurement
resource is intricately linked to the concept of idle
addresses other management problems. There is
resources. The cost of the resources idle beyond
strong interest today in measuring the dynamic
acceptable standards should not be ascribed to a
correlation of actual input versus actual output (as
revenue‐generation activity. With effort
opposed to the traditional approach of correlating
measurement, the TDABC model can base activity
actual output with standard input, if at all). This new
cost on real effort instead of standards.
exercise provides companies with accurate, real‐time
and historical information on their 2E3P – the Organisations wishing to work with the Resource
Efficiency and Effectiveness of their resources and Consumption Accounting model will find effort
thus leaks in Productivity and its impact on measurement an absolute must to create the model.
Profitability and overall Performance (refer
Appendix). Effort measurement drives the 2E3P
EMPLOYEE EVALUATION
model. This model is derived from Stefan Tangen’s
Triple‐P model and has been adapted to the service A significant amount of subjectivity in employee
sector to give the following benefits: performance evaluation is removed with an open
implementation of effort measurement. The
correlated data is available with the employee and
BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE
the management to take a fact‐based decision on the
Effort measurement is an effective driver for employee’s performance. The human resource
behavioural change in case of an open management team can more effectively design
implementation. The employees are given access to reward and penalty models on this basis.
their data along with a comparison with the team as
a whole. The employees are thus empowered by
being made aware of their action points without a IMPACT
first‐level involvement of the manager giving the
organisation significant motivational benefits.
EMPLOYEES
CAPACITY UTILISATION The primary impact of effort measurement is to
provide employees an objective evaluation of their
Competitive environments oblige organisations to
individual 2E3P, in relation to the team as a whole.
measure the extent to which their available capacity
Employees get the advantage of seeing their
has been consumed and what part of it was done so
achievements highlighted. Their training
usefully. Effort measurement clearly identifies idle
requirements are also derived from actual and not
resources and serves to recover the wastage. This
perceived needs. Since managers and their chain of
gives the organisation a view of the capacity still
command can view the 2E3P of individual team
available to process additional work units.
members, subjectivity is taken away from employee
performance evaluation. This makes it a well‐
CAPACITY PLANNING rounded transparent process.
Forecasting is an exercise with inherent potential for
inaccuracy. The practitioner seeks to improve MANAGEMENT
accuracy by reducing assumptions wherever possible.
Besides the benefits listed above, there are other
Since standard cycle times cannot accurately
operational impacts on management. Physical
represent the actual cycle time for each employee,
presence was traditionally important to measure the
substituting them with actual cycle times (allowing
effort of each team member. Automated effort
for team average, etc.) is a step forward in enhancing
measurement ensures that the team members can
the capacity planning model.
work with little or no physical supervision. The
managers are thus allowed additional time to add
PRODUCTIVITY MANAGEMENT value to the organisation. This also means that
managers can control a larger team and evaluate
Output is part of productivity measurement which
performance periodically with reduced effort. The
involves correlation of the input with the output.
organisation’s skill matrix can be enhanced to include
Output needs to be therefore seen against the effort
the new effort and productivity metrics. This eases
that went into generating it. This correlation provides
planning for future projects and processes.
an accurate measure of the productivity of the
employee / team / organisation. Effort measurement
gives a window to any leakages in productivity.
5
APPENDIX “Profitability = output x unit price / input x unit cost”
– Bernolak, 1997
Effort measurement drives the 2E3P model. This
model is derived from Stefan Tangen’s Triple‐P
PERFORMANCE
model.
“Performance is the umbrella term of excellence and
includes profitability and productivity as well as other
EFFICIENCY
non‐cost factors such as quality, speed, delivery and
“Efficiency means how much cost is expended flexibility.” – Stefan Tangen, 2003
compared with the minimum cost level that is
theoretically required to run the desired operations
TRIPLE‐P MODEL
in a given system.” – Jackson, 2000
The inter‐relationship between the various terms is
“Efficiency = ideal system dependent time/total
well‐defined the Triple‐P model in Error! Reference
time” – Jackson, 2000
source not found. below (also see Tangen, 2002a,b;
Grünberg, 2004).
EFFECTIVENESS
Productivity is the central core of the triple P‐model
“Effectiveness in manufacturing can be viewed as to and has a straightforward operational definition of
what extent the cost is used to create revenues.” – productivity as the relation between output quantity
Jackson, 2000 (i.e. correctly generated output which fulfil their
specifications) and input quantity (i.e. all resources
“Effectiveness = value added time/ideal system
that are consumed in the transformation process). It
dependent time” – Jackson, 2000
is argued that even though it is difficult to measure
different quantities by the same standard, the
PRODUCTIVITY concept of productivity is purely a physical
phenomenon and must therefore be defined as one.
“Productivity means how much and how well we
Profitability is also seen as a relationship between
produce from the resources used. If we produce
output and input, but it is a monetary relationship in
more or better goods from the same resources, we
which the influences of price‐factors (i.e. price
increase productivity. Or if we produce the same
recovery ‐ ratio of unit prices related to unit costs)
goods from lesser resources, we also increase
are included. Performance is the umbrella term of
productivity. By “resources”, we mean all human and
excellence and includes profitability and productivity
physical resources, i.e. the people who produce the
as well as other non‐cost factors such as quality,
goods or provide the services, and the assets with
speed, delivery and flexibility. The two terms
which the people can produce the goods or provide
effectiveness and efficiency are somewhat cross‐
the services.” – Bernolak, 1997
functional when it comes to the other three terms.
“Productivity = efficiency * effectiveness = value Effectiveness represents the degree to which desired
added time/total time” ‐ Jackson and Petersson, 1999 results are achieved; Efficiency represents how well
the resources of the transformation process are
utilised.
PROFITABILITY
“Profitability, on the other hand, is defined as output
quantities times output unit price per input
quantities times unit costs.” ‐Bernolak, 1997 Quality, speed,
flexibility
Price recovery
Performance
Profitability
Productivity
Output
Effectiveness
Input
Efficiency
6
REFERENCES
States and Canada”, Stanford Technology Law Review, STAN.
Stefan Tangen, “Demystifying productivity and performance”, TECH. L. REV. 4,
International Journal of Productivity and Performance http://stlr.stanford.edu/STLR/Articles/04_STLR_4.
Management, (August 2004), pp. 34-46.
Roberst S. Kaplan, Steven Anderson, “Time-Driven Activity-
Thomas Grünberg, “Performance improvement – Towards a Based Costing”, Harvard Business School Press (2007).
method for finding and prioritising potential improvement
areas in manufacturing operations” (2004), 53, 1/2, pp. 52- Michael S.C. Tse, Maleen Z. Gong, “Recognition of Idle
71. Resources in Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing and
Resource Consumption Accounting Models”, Journal of
Jonas Rutkauskas, Eimenė Paulavičienėm, “Concept of Applied Management Accounting Research, (2009), Number
Productivity in Service Sector”, Engineering Economics, 2, pp. 41-54.
(2005), No 3 (43), pp. 29-34.
Ciaran McGowan, “Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing, A
Robin L. Wakefield, “Employee Monitoring and Surveillance— new way to drive profitability” Accountancy Ireland,
The Growing Trend”, Information Systems Audit and Control (December 2009), pp. 60-61.
Association, (2004) Volume 1.
Michel Gervais, Charles Ducroq, Yves Levant, “Time Driven
Ann Bevitt, Marian Waldmann, Teresa Basile, Peter Edlind Activity Based Costing: New Wine, or Just New Bottles?”, La
and Gordon Milner, Morrison & Foerster “Monitoring place de la dimension européenne dans la Comptabilité
employees: striking a balance”, Labour and Employee Contrôle Audit, France (2009)
Benefits, (2007/08), Volume 1, pp. 53-59.
CIA – The World Factbook,
Gail Lasprogata, Nancy J. King, Sukanya Pillay, “Regulation https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
of Electronic Employee Monitoring: Identifying Fundamental factbook/geos/xx.html
Principles of Employee Privacy through a Comparative Study
of Data Privacy Legislation in the European Union, United
7