CHAPTER 3

Assessment of Social
Studies Learning

In this chapter, you will

read about
■ The purposes and goals of
both formative and summative
assessment
■ The essentials of effective assess-
ment in elementary social studies
■ Gathering data from multiple
sources
■ Alternatives for keeping records
of student performance
■ Guidelines for data analysis
■ Sharing assessment data with
students and parents

I
n Chapter 6, you will read a description of a Group Project. While
one group of students worked on the chronological mural of the city,
third-grade teacher Al Braccio entered data on a Group Project Eval-
uation Form. The form is a kind of rating scale that enabled Mr. Braccio
to document his observations of each child’s performance during
Group Projects. It also allowed him to make anecdotal notes for future
group work planning. For example, Brad wrote an excellent caption for
his part of the mural but did not complete tasks in a timely manner. Next
time, Mr. Braccio will be sure Brad works with someone who provides
a good model of staying on task. Sara, an English learner, continued to
show excellent work habits and social skills. Mr. Braccio noted that the
cooperative nature of the project gave her an opportunity to use her

69
70 Chapter 3

Figure 3.1

Group Project Evaluation Form

Title of Project: Chronological mural of our city

Dates: May 6–19
Participants: Sara, Debbie, Ben, Denise, Cliff, Tina, Dan, Amber, Brad, Claudia

Social
Skills Illustration Caption Timetable
Sara 1 1 2 1
Debbie 1 2 1 1
Ben 2 1 2 1
Denise 1 1 1 1
Cliff 1 2 2 1
Tina 1 2 2 2
Dan 3 2 2 1
Amber 2 2 1 1
Brad 2 2 1 3
Claudia 1 2 1 3
1: Excellent 2: Good 3: Needs improvement 4: Unacceptable
Notes:
5-11 Good to see Sara & Debbie work together, Sara is making so much progress in her
English.
5-12 Had to intervene with Dan and Amber. They argued. Dan has difficulty sharing.
He wanted to do all the artwork.
5-13 The drawings look great. Sara and Ben are exceptional artists. Brad and Claudia
needed help with their drawings.
5-15 Brad and Claudia haven’t used their time wisely. They will finish a couple of days
late.
5-16 I am pleased with the way Tina and Cliff helped each other.

improving English skills, an excellent reason to continue to plan Group Projects for the children. All in all, the
evaluation form (see Figure 3.1) proved to be a useful device for recording important data about the progress of
each child working on the project.
■■■
Assessment of Social Studies Learning 71

Purposes and Goals of Assessment

Assessment is the process of gathering, analyzing, and sharing information on the ability
and achievement of students. Although some educators have distinct definitions for assessment
and evaluation, in this book the terms are synonymous. In educational settings, assessments
are made for two purposes: Formative assessment is the process of helping students achieve
more––think of a ball of clay being “formed” into a finished work of art. Summative assess-
ment is the process of making judgments. In elementary social studies, summative assess-
ment usually means completing a report card of some sort––think of “summing” things up.
Teachers must be able to fulfill both purposes of assessment. Our assessment plans for
social studies must provide the data we need to make instructional decisions to increase the
achievement of our students. We also need data to summarize the progress of our students
and categorize their performance. Given the primary role standards are playing in almost
all elementary classrooms, the ultimate goal of the assessment process is to tell us how
much progress each student has made toward achieving each of our grade-level standards
in social studies. To make this judgment, assessment must first reveal the extent to which
students have met the objectives for a lesson or a unit.

Essentials of Effective Assessment

Teachers will develop an assessment plan for each social studies unit they teach. This plan
should have the following essential elements: (1) it will define sources of evidence that allow
teachers to determine if students have mastered the standard(s) the unit addresses, (2) it
will include some performance assessments, (3) it will be developed at an appropriate point
in the instructional planning process, and (4) it will allow the teacher to gather evidence
from multiple sources.

Standards-Based Assessment
The ultimate goal of the assessment plan is to make judgments about student progress in
mastering the relevant social studies standard(s) addressed in the unit. For this example, I
will use the National Standards for History (National Center for History in the Schools,
1996). Let us assume the social studies standards for fourth graders are the national stan-
dards in the category of “The History of Students’ Own State or Region.” There would
then be five standards that all fourth graders would be expected to achieve:
1. Students understand the history of indigenous peoples who first lived in their state or
region.
2. Students understand the history of the first European, African, and/or Asian-Pacific
explorers and settlers who came to their state or region.
3. Students understand the various other groups from regions throughout the world
who came into the state or region over the long-ago and recent past.
72 Chapter 3

4. Students understand the interactions among all these groups throughout the history
of their state.
5. Students understand the ideas that were significant in the development of the state
and that helped forge its unique identity.
One way to organize standards-based assessment is by creating a social studies portfolio
for each student (Adams & Hamm, 1992). A portfolio is a place of storage, one for each student,
and may be as simple as a manila folder. For social studies, however, the portfolio should be a
larger container, maybe a small box or basket. Some teachers I have known use a single portfo-
lio for all school subjects; others have two or more portfolios for each student. Returning to our
fourth-grade example, the first standard is that the student understands the history of the
indigenous peoples of the state or region. Let us assume the student lives in Ventura, California,
and her class has been studying the Chumash tribal group. The teacher will have defined key
sources of evidence for this first standard which could be placed in the portfolio behind a
divider titled “Social Studies Standard One: Indigenous Peoples.” That evidence could include a
story the student wrote titled “My Day with the Chumash,” a copy of an evaluation checklist
completed by the teacher on the student’s mini-mural on Chumash food gathering, a map the
student completed showing the location of Chumash villages, and the end-of-unit test.
Many teachers are now compiling computer-based storage systems for evidence gath-
ered for social studies assessment. Student work, tests, and other sources of data are stored
on CDs or some other computer-based storage device.

Performance Assessment
The plan should include performance assessments. Educational assessment has undergone
a revolution in the last four decades (Alleman & Brophy, 2001a; Nickell, 1999; Nitko &
Brookhart, 2006). Forty years ago, almost all judgments about student achievement were
based on tests. For the most part, these tests were part of the social studies textbook or tests
developed by teachers. Assessment was the process of developing, implementing, and inter-
preting tests. Well-designed, developmentally appropriate tests can provide useful informa-
tion and should be a part of social studies assessment, but even the best tests do not provide
a complete picture of what our students know, are able to do, and value. Tests capture stu-
dent performance at one point in time, limit ways of expressing knowledge, and require
performance in artificial situations divorced from typical social studies activities.
The alternative to tests is generally referred to as authentic assessment or performance
assessment or performance-based assessment (Alleman & Brophy, 1998, 2001a; Darling-
Hammond, Ancess, & Falk, 1995; Gallavan, 2008; Wiggins, 1993, 1999; Wiggins & McTighe,
2006). In this book I will use the descriptor “performance assessment.” Performance assess-
ment has the following characteristics:
■ Some sources of evidence are tasks requiring complex, higher-level thinking, often
through inquiry and problem solving.
■ Some sources of evidence assess students’ performance on tasks corresponding to the
types of things people do in the “real” world, rather than tasks performed only in school.
Assessment of Social Studies Learning 73

■ Data used for evaluation can come from the everyday assignments students complete,
assuming the teacher plans a wide range of challenging social studies activities.
■ The process is ongoing and longitudinal, with data gathered, analyzed, and shared
throughout the school year.
■ Students show what they know and can do in a variety of ways—through writing,
speaking, art, and drama.

Assessment in the Planning Process

The assessment plan should be defined at an appropriate point in the planning process. In
the previous chapter, I referred to the unit planning system developed by Wiggins and
McTighe (2006). They refer to their system as “backwards design.” You might recall that in
this system of planning the first step is to define what standards the unit will address and
then define the objectives for the unit’s lessons and activities. These are the unit’s “desired
results.” The second stage is to develop an assessment plan for the unit. Here, teachers define
the sources of evidence that will allow them to determine if students have achieved the
unit’s desired results. Only after the assessment plan has been created, do teachers move to
stage three and define the unit’s learning activities.
Wiggins and McTighe are correct in stating this process is not what usually happens in
instructional planning. Too often, teachers begin the planning process by defining activities
because of their appeal. The sources of appeal can be noble––the teacher plans the activity
because it is intellectually challenging. Or, the appeal can be less noble––the kids will have
fun and stay busy. Or, the appeal can be an external expectation––the teacher needs to cover
all the material in the social studies textbook and the activity will get another chapter out of
the way. The teacher then scurries to find a standard fitting the activity and only at the end
of the planning process, if at all, thinks about assessment. The process described by Wiggins
and McTighe makes better sense: define desired results, then define sources of evidence to
determine if those results have been achieved, then define activities enabling students to
achieve the desired results.

Multiple Sources of Evidence, Key Sources

The assessment plan should allow the teacher to examine data from multiple sources. The
next section of the chapter will provide a wide range of sources of evidence that can be used
to evaluate student performance in elementary social studies. These include:
■ Written products, like captions or reports
■ Nonwritten products, like charts or maps
■ Oral activities; products that involve several forms of expression, like a video presenta-
tion that has a written script, an oral presentation, and charts and diagrams
■ Informal observations of students
■ Tests
74 Chapter 3

While every activity in a unit will yield evidence that potentially can be gathered and
analyzed, the important thing is that the unit has an assessment plan defining key sources of
data for determining whether or not students achieved the desired results of the unit.

Gathering Data
All assessment plans will require teachers to participate in a process that parallels social
science research, which has three components: (a) gathering data, (b) analyzing data, and
(c) sharing data. First, let us take a more detailed look at the possible sources of data that
can provide evidence about student progress.

Written Products. A variety of social studies lessons will generate written products
that can serve as sources of data for determining student achievement. In this section, I use
examples from the original document presenting the NCSS Curriculum Standards for the
Social Studies (National Council for the Social Studies [NCSS], 1994).

Stories. Stories written by students can be used as a means of evaluating what they
learned. The NCSS (1994) provides the following example (p. 57): A teacher wanted her
class to understand the concept of an “artifact” and how family artifacts can help people
learn about how their relatives lived in the past. The teacher asked her second graders to
bring something to class their parents or grandparents owned when they were young. The
children gathered things like waffle irons, newspapers, old photographs, and kitchen tools.
Each child then wrote a story about her or his artifact.

Captions. To accompany simple illustrations and as a part of bulletin board displays, stu-
dents write captions. The captions can be used for assessment.

Editorials. The editorial form of journalistic essay requires the writer to organize facts to
persuade the reader and is a good project for older elementary students. Here’s another
example from the NCSS (1994, p. 83): An eighth-grade class examined different perspec-
tives on the American Revolution (patriot, loyalist, and indifferent). To assess students’
understanding of multiple perspectives, the teacher had students work in groups to gather
information on contemporary policy issues (e.g., welfare reform). Each student then wrote
a newspaper editorial advocating a position on that issue.
This example would be a good one to explore in terms of defining criteria and a scoring
rubric for analysis. Although the essay could be evaluated by several criteria, let’s assume the
teacher decided on only one: the ability to provide factual support for the position adopted
in the editorial. The teacher could develop an evaluation chart with the scoring rubric dis-
played in Figure 3.2. In this example, the teacher decided on three components of providing
factual support in the editorial: (a) the number of facts, (b) their relevance to the writer’s
position, and (c) the degree to which their presentation strengthened the writer’s position.
Assessment of Social Studies Learning 75

Figure 3.2

Evaluation Rubric for Newspaper Editorial

Unit: “The American Revolution”

Assignment: Newspaper editorial on contemporary policy issue

Student’s Name ______________________________________________________

Date ______________________________________________________________

Criterion: Ability to provide factual support for the editorial position

_____ 1. Essay cites several facts, each relevant to the topic, presented in a
manner that strengthens the writer’s position.
_____ 2. Essay cites few facts, each is relevant to the topic, and they are presented
in a manner that strengthens the writer’s position.
_____ 3. Essay cites few facts, and they are not relevant to the topic or they are not
presented in a manner that strengthens the writer’s position.
_____ 4. Essay failed to cite facts to support the writer’s position.

Answers to Questions. When students read from their social studies textbooks, many
lessons will require them to answer questions. For assessment, the key is to ask a variety of
questions, including those with answers explicitly stated in the text, those that require stu-
dents to synthesize information from different parts of the text, and those that require
interpretation.

Journals. Many of us have our students write in journals. Some journals are ongoing
summaries of what students think they have learned; others are change-of-perspective
journals written as if the students were in a different time and place. For example, the NCSS
(1994, p. 60) describes a second-grade classroom where the teacher asked the children to
select a way they could make their community a better place to live. Working in groups, the
children selected an organization in their city that could make their idea happen. The chil-
dren then sent a proposal to that organization. The teacher required the children to keep
journals during this activity. The teacher evaluated the journals for clarity, thoroughness,
and accuracy.

Scripts. When our students write scripts for performing arts presentations, we can save
these and place them in the students’ portfolios.
76 Chapter 3

Summary Reports. After our students participate in a project, we can ask them to write
reports summarizing what they did and learned. The NCSS (1994, p. 65) provides an exam-
ple of how this form of writing can be used for evaluation: A primary class participated in a
unit on economic specialization during production. The class was divided into two groups:
One group made their cookies with an assembly line; the other group made their cookies as
individuals. Afterward, the class compared the two approaches in terms of productivity,
pride, creativity, and quality control. Students prepared written summaries about the pro-
duction process. Their teacher evaluated the summaries in terms of accuracy of description
and extent to which each student used economic concepts to describe what happened.

Notes. As students gather information from reference materials, we can ask them to take
notes. Although notes usually are used as a tool to create something else (e.g., an oral pres-
entation or a bulletin board display), the notes themselves provide evidence of the extent of
each student’s mastery of the process of gathering information.

Letters. Students should write letters as part of social studies. The letters can be “real”
correspondence and be mailed to other students, to local newspapers, or to government
officials. Others can be hypothetical, written to imaginary or historical people. The NCSS
(1994, p. 104) describes an eighth-grade teacher who was concerned about the stereotypes
his students held about the Islamic world. The teacher had collected letters to the editor
published in the local newspaper showing a lack of respect toward women, social groups,
and cultural groups. Students in his class pretended they were members of a slighted group
and responded to the published letters. The teacher evaluated the letters based on clarity of
purpose, accuracy of information about the target group, and effectiveness of presentation.

E-Mail. Just as we would save letters our students have written, we can save their e-mails.
In terms of storage space, it is much more economical to save e-mail electronically on a CD
than to save letters written on sheets of paper.

Essays. We should have older students write essays taking a position and supporting that
position with evidence. These essays are the written project most closely resembling a tradi-
tional test. For essays used for assessment at the elementary level, however, we should
require students to work together to gather information, provide opportunities for discus-
sion on what they plan to write, and create a format for us to give them our feedback on
preliminary drafts of their essays.

Nonwritten Products. Social studies should never consist solely of paper-and-pencil

tasks. Throughout this book, I present many activities in which students create things that
are not “written.” The collection and analysis of these products are essential as an alternative
to written assessments, especially in a classroom with a diverse student population, because
many students find it easier to express what they know through speaking, making charts
and graphs, or producing art.

Charts. A great deal of social science data are best presented in charts and graphs. The
national Curriculum Standards for Social Studies provide these examples of how charts and
Assessment of Social Studies Learning 77

graphs can be placed in a portfolio and used for assessment: In one classroom, students inter-
viewed recent immigrants to the United States. Working in three groups, the students made
three charts: one summarizing reasons for coming to the United States, the second problems
encountered during immigration, and the third feelings immigrants have about leaving one
place for another. Each group had to respond to questions from their classmates using the charts
as a data source (NCSS, 1994, p. 53). In another classroom, students compiled charts on Native
American tribes by using the following categories: geographic region, life before European con-
tact, life after European contact, and contemporary status (p. 81). Charts are a good evaluative
tool to assess our students’ ability to both identify and categorize relevant information.

Maps. We can assess our students’ knowledge of geographic information by asking them to
make maps. We should use “mental maps,” those drawn from memory, to assess our students’
knowledge of geographic features (Wise & Kon, 1990). An example is offered in the national
social studies standards: A second-grade class was studying their city, including the locations of
major places. The children used a variety of maps to increase their knowledge and made pop-
up maps of different areas. To evaluate what they had learned, their teacher asked them to make
mental maps of the city and to include features from the area they studied while making their
pop-up maps. The mental (or “sketch”) maps were evaluated for accuracy (NCSS, 1994, p. 56).

Visual Arts. We can use a variety of visual arts products for assessment. Visual arts are
important because they separate knowledge from the ability to express that knowledge
through writing or speaking. Murals, posters, cartoons, constructions, and any other visual
art form can be used to determine what students have learned. A good example is provided
by the NCSS (1994, p. 52). In a unit on their community, primary-age children each
selected a topic from this list: transportation, land use, schools, people, stores, or residences.
Each child then drew two illustrations––one depicting the topic as it appears today and the
other as it appeared long ago. The teacher used the drawings to assess the children’s under-
standing of the broad concept of change and their specific knowledge of how their city had
changed. The checklist in Figure 3.3 could be used to analyze the illustrations.

Oral Activities. We can use a variety of speaking activities to assess our students in social
studies, especially mastery of the process of civil discourse. By listening to them, we can also
judge their ability to work productively in groups. Whereas we can assess more formal oral
reports in the same fashion as a written essay, discussions require us to use one of the
following analytic techniques:
■ Listen to a group and assess only one objective. For example, we could observe three
students discussing a topic and record information on the sole objective “takes turns and
allows others to speak.”We would assess each student in the group on her or his achievement
of the objective.
■ Listen to a group and record a few observations in anecdotal form. We could take
notes and record only those observed phenomena that “stand out” (“Heidi was able to
support her position with evidence,”“Vijay was patient and waited politely to speak,” or
“Shannon wanted to dominate and interrupted others”).
78 Chapter 3

Figure 3.3

Evaluation Checklist for Now and Then Illustrations

Unit: “Our Community: Yesterday and Today”

Assignment: Now and then illustrations

Student’s Name _____________________________________________________

Date ______________________________________________________________

Check all that apply:

_____ Illustrations depict the same topic or place.

_____ “Now” illustration provides three or more clearly distinguishable features.

_____ “Then” illustration provides three or more clearly distinguishable features.

_____ “Then” illustration is historically accurate.

_____ Illustrations were completed on time.

For example, in a fourth-grade classroom, students took part in a simulation on inter-

national trade and the relative wealth of nations. Some groups were given considerable
resources (school supplies such as glue and tape), whereas other groups were not and were
considered “impoverished.” After the simulation, the whole class met to discuss the experi-
ence in relation to the international economic concepts they were studying. The discussion
helped the teacher assess the extent to which the students could apply those concepts to a
specific situation (the simulation) (NCSS, 1994, p. 66).

Performing Arts. If we are skilled, we can use drama, dance, and song to learn about our
students. They will provide us with much useful information for assessment in social stud-
ies prior to their performance—in the writing of the script, the creation of the setting, and
the design of the costumes. Each of these components will reveal the depth of a student’s
knowledge of other people, places, and times. In a class studying the American Revolution,
for example, children were placed in groups. Each group selected a person from the period
(e.g., Mercy Otis Warren, George Washington, Elizabeth Freeman, or Patrick Henry). The
group then produced a scene depicting that person’s contributions before, during, or after
the war. The scene had to include dialogue and a setting (backdrops and/or props). The
teacher evaluated each group for the accuracy and importance of the information they
Assessment of Social Studies Learning 79

presented in their scene. The teacher asked the class to place the scenes in chronological
order. The teacher used this for evaluation as well (NCSS, 1994, p. 53).

Multiple-Form Products. Many social studies activities challenge students to pro-

duce something requiring a combination of writing, the arts, charts, and speaking. In
many classrooms, these multimedia products are completed with computer-based reso-
urces as students produce multimedia reports on CDs or add links to a class Website. The
finished products will feature written text, visual images (photographs taken with a digi-
tal camera or a video), and charts or graphs. Although it is possible for us to look at just
one aspect of the product for evaluation (e.g., just the written part), many products
should be evaluated as a whole. For example, a third-grade class was learning how
humans change the environment. The children decided to undertake a whole-class proj-
ect on the effects of the styrofoam cups used in the school cafeteria. The children gath-
ered data on the number of cups used annually and the amount of fluorocarbons released
by the cups. They summarized information on the topic they found in hard-copy and
computer-based reference materials. They learned about the cost of replacing the styro-
foam cups with paper cups. The class prepared a videotaped proposal for their school-
mates and, eventually, the school board.
In another example of a multiple-form product, a seventh-grade class studied interna-
tional economic interdependence. Teacher and students together constructed a survey to
determine the global connections of local businesses. Members of the class used the survey
to interview representatives of those businesses. Each student then prepared a poster illus-
trating the international aspects of the business. Each student was to prepare a short state-
ment, similar to a news story, to use with the poster in a presentation. The teacher evaluated
each student, using both the poster and the written statement, in terms of thoroughness,
depth of information, and accuracy (NCSS, 1994, p. 102).

Tests. One positive outcome of the move to performance assessment is that tests have
become more “authentic”––in fact, some teachers use a writing or an arts project as a test
(Gallavan, 2008; Wiggins, 1989, 1992, 1999). For example, a teacher decides that each stu-
dent will produce an illustrated timeline of the history of South Carolina. This is a test in
that all students will be required to complete the task, and the teacher will use the results to
evaluate what students have learned about their state. This assignment is more authentic
than most tests, however. First, the task is familiar; students have made several timelines
during the year. Tests, too, often measure student performance on tasks that are novel. Sec-
ond, the task, unlike most tests, does not require students to write. Finally, the task has dif-
ferent “correct” versions. Although successful timelines will share common information,
they will not be exactly alike (Brandt, 1992; Nitko & Brookhart, 2006).
Well-designed and developmentally appropriate tests should also be a part of our
assessment plans. They will provide us with information that cannot be gained from other
sources of evidence. Tests will also provide information we can use to support conclusions
we have made after we have reviewed the other sources. Social studies tests are part of the
resources that come with social studies textbooks. Often there is a test, usually multiple choice
80 Chapter 3

questions and some simple essays, for each chapter. Some states have adopted end-of-the-
year standardized tests to determine if students have met the state-adopted social studies
standards. These state-adopted tests are standardized in that the testing procedure must be
identical each time the test is given. Though it varies from year to year because some states
add mandated tests and others drop them, about 25 states have now mandated standardized
tests in social studies (Grant, 2007; Grant & Salinas, 2008).
Some teachers develop their own tests. If teachers were to develop social studies tests,
they should be concerned with some key concepts relating to tests. Tests should be reliable,
which means the results will be consistent when given in similar situations. Tests must be
valid, which means they measure what they claim to measure, and the inferences teachers
make about the results are accurate (Wiggins & McTighe, 2006). With our English language
learners (ELLs), test validity is a big issue because some tests do not measure the test taker’s
knowledge of social studies; rather, they measure the test taker’s ability to read and write in
English. How do we as teachers transform our social studies tests so they are more authen-
tic? Here are some ways the tests have been modified:

Time. The more traditional tests have strict, uniform time limits. Some projects used for
assessment, however, should have flexible time limits; students need to be given ample time
to finish the task.

Location. Traditional tests are taken in school at the student’s seat. Many of us, however,
are developing tests for students to complete at home, on field trips, or in the library.

Collaboration. In a traditional test, students work on their own. Many social studies
activities, however, require students to work in groups, and some tests require group work,
too. Sometimes the group work is a prelude to the performance that will be assessed. For
example, each second-grader must draw a picture of his or her favorite place in the commu-
nity and write a brief rationale for this decision. Prior to beginning, small groups of chil-
dren talk about what they will draw. The drawings and accompanying essays will be used for
evaluation.

Alternatives to Reading and Writing. Most traditional tests demand a high level of
literacy––the test taker reads questions and then writes answers. Some tests, however, ask
students to draw, to make maps, or to talk.
We should create tests that provide information on each student’s progress toward
achieving our grade-level standards. When used with other sources of information and
more authentic tests, more traditional tests can provide useful information. Essay tests are
particularly helpful when they ask students to compare and contrast (remember, though,
we should use essay tests only when our students have well-developed writing skills).
Multiple-choice tests have the advantage of being easy to correct and, if properly con-
structed, can cover a wide range of content. This type of test, along with true/false tests,
however, typically fail to assess more than knowledge of facts and reveal little about stu-
dents’ grasp of concepts and generalizations. It takes time to prepare a good multiple-choice
Assessment of Social Studies Learning 81

test. An item has a “stem” (“The city with the most people in our state is . . .”) and then
three or more “options” (a. Los Angeles, b. San Francisco, c. San Diego). The options should
be plausible, but only one of them should be the correct answer. Other forms of tests
include matching (students link items in one column with items in another) and completion
(students “fill in the blank[s]” of a partial sentence). Those of us who use these traditional
forms of tests should follow the guidelines listed here:
■ Plan activities that help students become familiar with the test format––practice tests
or tests completed in groups––but do not devote too much time to test-taking practice.
■ Be absolutely sure that the form of the test matches the developmental level of the stu-
dents who will take it. Be sure tests used with primary-age children are simple and short.
■ Teach older students, especially those who will go to a middle school or junior high
school in the subsequent year, how to study for tests.

Records Teachers Should Keep

Whether they use a portfolio or some other storage system, teachers will keep some prod-
ucts created by students. For the most part, however, after students’ products have been
analyzed they will go home with the students to be shared with their families. Teachers will
need to keep several types of records providing data on the performance of our students.

Anecdotal Records. Anecdotal records can be written on sheets of paper, on “sticky”

notes, or in computer files. It is not difficult to imagine a time when most teachers will use
laptop computers to record their classroom observations. “Kid watching” is an essential part
of evaluation, and these anecdotal notes will provide us with a great deal of important infor-
mation. As we watch our students participate in social studies activities, we should write brief
descriptions of noteworthy events. We should include the date, time, and context of the
activity. Obviously, we will not be able to write something about each student every day, but
over the course of time, our anecdotal records will show patterns. Here are two examples:
May 8, 2009
DeSean and Peyton are drawing a map of the classroom. So far, so good, and this is
nice to see because Peyton usually likes “to take over” and boss classmates around.
They are working well together and their map is accurate.
May 10, 2009
Normandy is having difficulty with the scale of miles activity. The scale is 100 miles to
1 inch on the map. Instead of multiplying distances by 100, she is adding 100 to the
distance.

Evaluation Rubrics and Rating Scales. An example of a rubric was shown in

Figure 3.2. A rubric provides a scale with written descriptors to categorize student perfor-
mance. A rubric should have three or more categories, and the descriptor for each category
should be written with enough detail to distinguish it from the others. Reliable and valid
rubrics are difficult to develop, the best ones requiring a group effort and testing in several
82 Chapter 3

Figure 3.4

Rating Scale for Assessing an Eighth-Wonder Project

Unit: Europe and the Middle East in ancient days

Assignment: Group project—Construct an Eighth Wonder

Names of Students

Roberto

Winona
Zella

Ned

Jiri
Criteria

1. Helped group reach agreement 4 1 3 2 4

2. Supported other members of the group 4 1 3 2 4

3. Showed knowledge of characteristics 1 1 4 1 4

of seven ancient wonders

4. Assisted in the design of the Eighth 4 1 1 1 4

Wonder

5. Used art skills to construct Eighth 4 1 1 1 4

Wonder

6. Provided a cultural context for defining 1 1 4 1 4

Eighth Wonder

1: Excellent 2: Very good 3: Acceptable 4: Area of difficulty

classrooms so the descriptors are refined. Other forms of rating scales may use single-word
descriptors (e.g., “outstanding” and “above average”). Figure 3.4 shows an example of a rating
scale for assessing a Group Project. After studying the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World,
students were placed in groups and given the challenge of constructing a model of an
Eighth Wonder (see NCSS, 1994, p. 100).

Checklists. Checklists allow us to record information about our students (Figures 3.3
and 3.6 are examples). Unlike rubrics or rating scales, checklists do not provide a continuum
so we can capture gradations of student performance. They are simple and typically require a
yes/no judgment.
Assessment of Social Studies Learning 83

Analyzing and Sharing Assessment Data

Next in the process is the analysis of the data that have been gathered and, ultimately, sharing
the results of that analysis with children and their families. An important point to emphasize at
the start is that we analyze student work to determine if students have met the social studies
standards appropriate for the classroom. Thinking back to the first chapter, standards-based
curricula should have standards relating to content, processes, and values. Those three ele-
ments of the curriculum will serve as the framework for our discussion of the analysis of data.

Verifying Acquisition of Content

For all social studies lessons, we must have some means to assess the extent to which our
students achieved the content objectives for the lesson. What does the student know? As stu-
dents talk, write, draw, and act, they are providing the evidence necessary for us to judge
their level of achievement. For example, Chapter 12 contains a plan for a lesson that took
place during a sixth-grade unit on careers. Students completed a variety of tasks based on
advertisements for jobs in the local newspaper. The content objective was that students
“understand the specialized nature of jobs, how each job has unique responsibilities and

AVAVA/Shutterstock

This teacher is evaluating a student's written response to a chapter in the social studies
textbook. He will then use his computer to record and save the results
84 Chapter 3

requirements.” Groups of students selected ads and answered questions the teacher wrote
on a sheet of chart paper. The written responses indicated to what degree each group could
identify the unique responsibilities and requirements of the job described in the ad they
selected. The teacher also kept notes as she observed each group working.
In addition to assessing student mastery of content in lessons, teachers must have evidence
so we can judge to what extent our students have achieved the broader content objectives estab-
lished for a unit. Chapter 2 contains an example of a third-grade social studies unit on boats.
The unit is organized around four questions serving as the unit’s content objectives. Although
every lesson in the unit will produce either behavior or products that can be assessed, some
activities are particularly important from an assessment standpoint. The unit assessment plan
in Figure 3.5 shows how the unit’s activities will be used for assessment purposes.

Figure 3.5

Teacher’s Assessment Plan for Unit “Boats”

BOATS

Objective 1: What are the different types of boats, and why are they different?
Unit activities used for assessment of this objective:
Field trip to harbor
Concept attainment lesson
Unit test

Objective 2: Where in our state, country, and world would you find people using boats?
Unit activities used for assessment of this objective:
Map reading activity
Inquiry—The Voyage to Hawaii
Unit test

Objective 3: What types of jobs do people perform on boats, and how have those
jobs changed over time?
Unit activities used for assessment of this objective:
Bulletin board display
Videocassette, Ships
Unit test

Objective 4: How have boats changed over time?

Unit activities used for assessment of this objective
Bulletin board display
History of boats lesson
Unit test
Assessment of Social Studies Learning 85

Measuring Mastery of Processes

Either checklists or rating scales can be used to record student progress toward mastering
the process objectives of social studies lessons and units. Here our concern is with what stu-
dents can do. We need to observe our students, keep good records, and refer frequently to
the portfolios to reach conclusions about each student’s abilities. Here is an example of use
of a checklist: A school district wrote objectives for the use of print encyclopedias in fourth
grade. Teachers used the checklist in Figure 3.6 for assessment.
Good checklists can be used effectively, but the achievement of process objectives is a
matter of degree, and checklists do not allow us to record different levels of achievement.
Rating scales do, though, and are a better tool for recording each student’s level of success.
For example, if one third-grade social studies objective for the year is that each student

Figure 3.6
Checklist for Assessing Use of Print Encyclopedias

Student’s Name _____________________________________________________

School ____________________________________________________________

Teacher ___________________________________________________________

Date Achieved Project or Assignment Objective

____________________ ____________________ 1. Uses information in

encyclopedia to
answer questions

____________________ ____________________ 2. Compares information

in encyclopedia with
other source

____________________ ____________________ 3. Uses index to locate

an entry
____________________ ____________________ 4. Given a topic, locates
appropriate entry(ies)
____________________ ____________________ 5. Scans for relevant
details
____________________ ____________________ 6. Records information
in a format that
facilitates future use
86 Chapter 3

“adjust his or her behavior to fit the dynamic of various groups and various situations,” it is
unlikely any students will fail to demonstrate this behavior on at least some occasions. Let’s
look at an example of a rating scale for achievement of process objectives.
The national geography standards established geographic skills to be learned by the
end of the fourth grade (Geography Education Standards Project, 1994). These are process
objectives, describing what students should be able to do, and are organized in five sets of
skills. Figure 3.7 shows a rating scale in the form of a class profile for these geographic skills
(for the complete wording of each objective, see Geography Education Standards Project,
1994, pp. 46–49).

Evaluating Development of Values

Values are criteria by which behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes are judged. For example, justice
is a value. That those accused of crimes are entitled to a fair trial is a belief, keeping an open
mind while serving on a jury is an attitude, and speaking in favor of due process rights of
people in totalitarian regimes is a behavior; each is consistent with the value of justice. This
aspect of social studies is difficult to evaluate. We can make judgments about people’s values,
beliefs, and attitudes only by observing their behavior. As teachers, we can take essentially
two approaches. In the first approach, we can ask our students to express their attitudes and
beliefs through discussion and writing. The content of these discussions and written state-
ments can be judged for consistency with the values of our social studies program. For
example, the National Standards for Civics and Government (Center for Civic Education,
1994) lists equality of opportunity as a fundamental value of American democracy. We
could ask our students to establish criteria for classroom officers, and then we could assess
those criteria in terms of how inclusive they are.
In the second approach, we can observe our students’ behavior to see to what extent
they have adopted the values we are trying to teach. This is somewhat trickier than it might
seem because of cultural differences. For example, a teacher wants his students to adopt the
value of equality of opportunity. He thinks a behavior demonstrating this value is when his
students listen quietly and let others take turns during group discussions. This behavior,
however, will be easier for children from some cultural groups than from others. Korean
American children, especially those whose parents were born in Korea, have learned at
home a set of rules for taking part in a discussion––be quiet and do not talk unless the
leader of the group asks you a question. Native Hawaiian children, in contrast, who have
participated in traditional “talk story” events, are accustomed to jumping into conversa-
tions in a way many European Americans would consider inappropriate and Korean Amer-
icans would find shocking (Au, 1993). It is important to consider cultural influences on
behavior before we make a judgment about whether a behavior was the result of a commit-
ment to a value.

Standards-Based Analysis
Initially, the teacher’s focus is on analyzing data to determine if the objectives for a lesson
are achieved. Then, the focus shifts to the broader objectives of the unit. Ultimately, the data
 5.3 Apply geographic
generalizations

5.2 Use geographic

inquiry

5.1 Present
geographic
information

4.4 Use simple math

4.3 Use texts and

photos

4.2 Use tables and

graphs

4.1 Use maps

3.2 Construct graphs

3.1 Prepare maps

2.2 Record
observations

2.1 Locate information

1.2 Distinguish

Achieves objective partially and only with assistance.

geographic/non-
geographic

Achieves objective partially without assistance.

★ Achieves objective at high levels of proficiency.

1.1 Ask geographic
questions
Class Profile: Geographic Skills, Grade 4

Achieves objective.
Figure 3.7

Names

87
88 Chapter 3

are analyzed to determine if each student has met the relevant social studies standard(s).
This usually involves synthesizing conclusions reached after lesson-level and unit-level
analysis. A good approach adopted by some of our school districts is to create individual pro-
files that show each student’s progress toward achieving each grade-level standard (Figure 3.8
is an example). As in our initial example in this chapter, Figure 3.8 assumes that a school
district has adopted the five standards in the topic “The History of Students’ Own State or
Region” from the National Standards for History. Features of Figure 3.8 reflect basic princi-
ples in standards-based assessment:

■ The evaluation process is longitudinal and ongoing. Most standards are achieved
gradually. The individual profile in Figure 3.8 requires the teacher to make an assessment
of each student in December, March, and June.
■ The evaluation process acknowledges that there are gradations of achievement. The
profile in Figure 3.8 allows the teacher to reach one of four conclusions about each stan-
dard at each point in time. Some standards may not yet be addressed. For those that have
been covered, some students will have evidence in their portfolios that the standard has
been met, other students will have evidence leading to the conclusion that the standard has
been partially met, and for some students the evidence will indicate the student has not
met the standard.
■ The evaluation process should use several sources of data. Judgments about
achievement of standards are most valid if the teacher relies on more than one source of
data. Figure 3.8 requires the teacher to use at least three sources of evidence related to the
standard. These could be any of the sources of data mentioned in this chapter (i.e., written
products like stories or journals, nonwritten products like charts or maps, or tests).

How will teachers know that a student has met a standard? This can be tricky because
most standards are phrased with verbs requiring interpretation, such as “understands,”
“describes,”“compares,” and “analyzes.” There are three possibilities:
1. Rely on tests. This option removes, to a large extent, any subjective judgment by
teachers and relies on assessment with quantifiable outcomes. For example, for the stan-
dard that “The student understands the history of indigenous peoples who first lived in
his or her state,” a 50-point test could be developed and administered to each student. The
criterion for meeting the standard might be 80% (40 points). The problem with this
approach is that it excludes many valid sources of evidence, like projects, that are more dif-
ficult to quantify. Tests relying on multiple-choice questions cannot effectively measure
critical thinking. In many states, however, this option is being implemented as standard-
ized, end-of-the-year tests in social studies are mandated and must be administered to
each student.
2. Rely on the teacher’s judgment. This option leads to a level of subjectivity, of
course, but it does allow the teacher to consider a variety of evidence. The teacher would
look at several sources of data and decide, on the basis of all the evidence, whether the stu-
dent understands the history of the indigenous peoples who first lived in his or her state.
Figure 3.8
Individual Profile—Standards Assessment

Individual Profile—Grade 4 Social Studies

Student's Name _____________________________________________

MS = meets standard PM = standard partially met NM = standard not met

NO = standard not yet addressed

December March June Standard

1. The student understands the history of indigenous

peoples who first lived in his or her state.

Sources of evidence for this standard:

(a)
(b)
(c)

2. The student understands the history of the first

European, African, and/or Asian-Pacific explorers and
settlers who came to his or her state.

Sources of evidence for this standard:

(a)
(b)
(c)

3. The student understands the various other groups from

regions throughout the world who came into his or her
own state over the long-ago and recent past.

Sources of evidence for this standard:

(a)
(b)
(c)

4. The student understands the interactions among all

these groups throughout the history of his or her state.

Sources of evidence for this standard:

(a)
(b)
(c)

5. The student understands the ideas that were significant

in the development of the state and that helped to forge its
unique identity.

Sources of evidence for this standard:

(a)
(b)
(c)
89
90 Chapter 3

3. Combine options 1 and 2 by establishing a criterion for each standard while placing
values on several sources of evidence. For example, for the standard “The student under-
stands the history of indigenous peoples who first lived in his or her state,” teachers would
use a test, journal entries, a story written from the perspective of a Native American, a
study guide, and a readers’ theater presentation. Points would be assigned to each source
of evidence for a total, say, of 100. Even with well-developed rubrics, there would be some
level of subjectivity in assigning points to some sources of evidence (e.g., the story and
reader’s theater presentation). To meet the standard, each student would need to achieve
a preset criterion, such as 80 points.

Sharing What Has Been Learned

We have gathered data from a variety of sources. We have analyzed those data to determine
to what extent each student has acquired content, mastered processes, and adopted values.
We have considered all the evidence and reached conclusions about the student’s achieve-
ment of grade-level standards in social studies. The final component of assessment is shar-
ing the results of our analysis. This will take place in a variety of formats, as discussed in the
sections that follow.

Informal Conferences with Students. Conversations with our students about their
progress is an essential part of good teaching. These should be private and can address any
aspect of the social studies program. For example, “Tony, your drawing of the Iroquois vil-
lage is very good. I always look forward to your artwork, but this isn’t what longhouses
looked like. Where could you find more information about them?” In this case, we have
commented on Tony’s failure to achieve a content objective—the ability to describe accu-
rately Native American dwellings. Our comments could focus on process: “Carmela, I
looked at your map of the city, and it really shows you know how to create your own sym-
bols.” Here we are informing her that she has achieved a process objective—the ability to
construct an accurate map with original symbols. Finally, the purpose of a conference could
be to address a need in terms of values and beliefs: “Paul, I noticed today at recess that you
called Orlando out when it was clear to everyone else he was safe. Why is it important for all
of us to follow the rules when we play softball? How would you feel if you had been
Orlando?”

Parent Conferences. We should communicate with parents in a variety of formats.

Schools may schedule formal conferences once or twice a year. In terms of social studies, we
should be able to state our conclusions about the achievement of standards to parents and
support those conclusions with items from their child’s portfolio. The focus of the conference
should be on the standards. I think it is good practice not to wait until the formal confer-
ences to talk with parents about how their child is doing in social studies. When our stu-
dents do something great, we should take the time to call their parents. All too often, we
contact parents only when something wrong happens.
Assessment of Social Studies Learning 91

Report Cards. All schools have some form for reporting students’ progress. These sum-
mative reports vary widely in format. “Social Studies” usually appears as a topic on the
report card. More and more school districts are basing the report card on standards. Each
standard is listed, and the teacher must indicate the level of the student’s achievement of
each standard (by using a rubric similar to the one provided in Figure 3.8). Some school
districts use letter grades (e.g., A, B, C). Strong arguments can be made against using letter
grades in elementary school, especially with our youngest students. If we are in a situation
where we give grades, then we should be sure our students understand our criteria for mak-
ing judgments. We must tell students what activities will be used to determine grades. Many
school districts have report cards with categories or scales. Categories, for example, might be
“area of need,” “making progress,” or “area of strength.” Some districts have constructed
summative rubrics with categories described in several sentences. Each student is then
placed in the appropriate category. Finally, some report cards ask us to make written com-
ments. Usually, this format is combined with either grades or a scale. Providing written
comments for each student is time consuming, and rarely is there enough space to write all
that we want. Whatever the format, we must be able to support our judgments with evi-
dence from our students’ portfolios.

Assessment and Diversity: Final Thoughts

Our theme of diversity dictates that we use a variety of data sources to help us determine
what our students know and are able to do. Diverse sources allow us to reach accurate con-
clusions about the achievement of our students. For too long, paper-and-pencil tests were
the only assessment tool used in social studies. Both cultural and personal characteristics
make it difficult for some students to show what they know on this type of test. When we
shift to authentic assessment, especially when we use discussion, visual and performing
arts, we create a more equitable and accurate system for evaluation, especially for children
with learning disabilities.
For our English learners, it is important that assessment be uncoupled from English
literacy tasks. We are on the wrong path if our assessment reveals the student’s level of
English proficiency rather than what he or she has learned in social studies. Quite simply,
we frequently do not know whether low achievement among our English learners is the
result of their not knowing social studies content or their not knowing English. To make
the distinction, English learners must have the opportunity to show what they know
through the performing and visual arts. When possible, assessment should be done in the
student’s primary language. For example, if one of our standards is that students accu-
rately describe the dwellings of four 15th-century Native American tribal groups, it does
not matter if the descriptions are written in English or Spanish (note, too, that the descrip-
tions could be drawn rather than written). Primary language assessment requires a bilin-
gual teacher or a bilingual instructional aide and, of course, this may not be possible in all
schools for all children.
92 Chapter 3

Summary of Key Points

■ The process of assessing students has undergone great changes in the past 40 years. A
shift has occurred toward performance or authentic assessment, an ongoing process in
which data are gathered from multiple sources.
■ Assessment has three parts: gathering, analyzing, and sharing data.
■ Unit assessment plans should provide evidence on student progress toward social
studies standards, include performance assessments, be developed at an appropriate
place in the planning progress, and gather data from multiple sources.
■ In addition to saving student work, teachers should use anecdotal records, evaluation
rubrics, rating scales, and checklists.
■ We should analyze evidence to determine to what extent each student has acquired
content, mastered processes, and adopted values. Our conclusions should be made in
reference to our stated objectives for lessons and units.
■ Ultimately, the data we have gathered and analyzed should allow teachers to determine
whether each student has met each grade-level standard.
■ We should share our conclusions with students and parents in a variety of formats
including informal discussions, formal conferences, and report cards.
■ For a diverse classroom, it is essential that students be allowed to show what they
know and can do through discussion and the arts.