CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1. Inverter:

A device that converts DC power into AC power at desired output voltage and frequency
is called an Inverter. Phase controlled converters when operated in the inverter mode
are called line commutated inverters. But line commutated inverters require at the
output terminals an existing AC supply which is used for their commutation. This means
that line commutated inverters can’t function as isolated AC voltage sources or as
variable frequency generators with DC power at the input. Therefore, voltage level,
frequency and waveform on the AC side of the line commutated inverters can’t be
changed. On the other hand, force commutated inverters provide an independent AC
output voltage of adjustable voltage and adjustable frequency and have therefore much
wider application.

Inverters can be broadly classified into two types based on their operation:
 Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
 Current Source Inverter (CSI)

Voltage Source Inverters is one in which the DC source has small or negligible
impedance. In other words VSI has stiff DC voltage source at its input terminals. A
current source inverter is fed with adjustable current from a DC source of high
impedance, i.e: from a stiff DC current source. In a CSI fed with stiff current source,
output current waves are not affected by the load.

2. Classification Of Inverters:

Inverters can be classified into following types based on the;

 According to charging process

a) Power Inverter
b) Solar Inverter

1
 According to wave form
a) Square Wave Inverter
b) Sine Wave Inverter
c) Modified Sine Wave Inverter

 According to Charging Process:

a) Power Inverter:

A  power inverter, or inverter, is a power electronic device or circuitry that

changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC).The input voltage, output voltage
and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device
or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC
source.
A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical
effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use
moving parts in the conversion process.
Power inverters are primarily used in electrical power applications where high currents
and voltages are present; circuits that perform the same function for electronic signals,
which usually have very low currents and voltages, are called oscillators. Circuits that
perform the opposite function, converting AC to DC, are called rectifiers.

b) Solar Inverter:

A solar inverter or PV inverter, is a type of electrical converter which converts the

variable direct current (DC) output of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility
frequency alternating current (AC) that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or
used by a local, off-grid electrical network. It is a critical balance of system (BOS)–
component in a photovoltaic system, allowing the use of ordinary AC-powered
equipment.
Solar power inverters have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays,
including maximum power point tracking and anti-islanding protection.

2
 Fig- Solar Inverter

 Classification Of Solar Inverter:

Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types:

 Stand-alone Inverters:

Stand-alone inverters used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC energy
from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters also
incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC source, when
available. Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility grid, and as such,
are not required to have anti-islanding protection.

 Grid-tie Inverters:

Which match phase with a utility-supplied sine wave. Grid-tie inverters are designed to

shut down automatically upon loss of utility supply, for safety reasons. They do not
provide backup power during utility outages.

 Battery backup Inverters:

Battery backup inverters are special inverters which are designed to draw energy from a
battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard charger, and export excess energy
to the utility grid. These inverters are capable of supplying AC energy to selected loads
during a utility outage, and are required to have anti-islanding protection.

 Intelligent hybrid Inverters:

3
 Intelligent hybrid inverters manage photovoltaic array, battery storage and utility grid,
which are all coupled directly to the unit. These modern all-in-one systems are usually
highly versatile and can be used for grid-tie, stand-alone or backup applications but
their primary function is self-consumption with the use of storage.

 According to Wave-forms:

a) Square Wave Inverter:

This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is best suited
to low-sensitivity applications such as lighting and heating. Square wave output can
produce "humming" when connected to audio equipment and is generally unsuitable
for sensitive electronics.

Fig- Square waveform.

The conversion of DC to AC is most commonly done through the use of MOSFET inverter
circuits which can switch the voltage across the load, providing a digital approximation
of the desired AC signal. The simplest variant of this inversion is the production of a
square wave conversion of a sine wave. In the form of square wave, The load voltage
must be switched majorly from high voltage to low Voltage, without using for an
intermediate step (0V). In order to deliver the same power as the sine wave to be
approximated, the amplitude value of the square wave value and sine wave’s RMS value
is same.

4
 Fig. Square Wave Inverter Circuit Diagram

Therefore, the average voltages, and the power delivered will be the same for the two
waveforms. Square wave inverters are very rarely used in practice, as many devices
which utilize timing circuits that on something close to the sine wave from the power
company cannot operate with such a rough.

In addition, a square wave has relatively large 3rd and 5th harmonic components which
burn power and severely cut down on the efficiency of devices using such inverters as a
power source. In this bellow diagram op-amp is the main part of the square wave signal
diagram.

 Applications of Square Waveform Inverter:

Majorly square wave inverter applications voltage source inverter having many
applications in many low cost AC motor drives, that is like as an uninterrupted power
supply and circuits utilizing electrical resonance between an inductor and capacitor.
Some examples of circuits utilizing like resonance phenomenon are induction heating
units and electronic ballasts for fluorescent lamps.

b) Sine Wave Inverter:

A power inverter device which produces a multiple step sinusoidal AC waveform is

referred to as a sine wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the inverters with
outputs of much less distortion than the "modified sine wave" (three step) inverter
designs, the manufacturers often use the phrase pure sine wave inverter. Almost all
consumer grade inverters that are sold as a "pure sine wave inverter" do not produce a
smooth sine wave output at all, just a less choppy output than the square wave (one
step) and modified sine wave (three step) inverters. In this sense, the phrases "Pure sine

5
wave" or "sine wave inverter" are misleading to the consumer. However, this is not
critical for most electronics as they deal with the output quite well.

Where power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine wave output is
desirable because many electrical products are engineered to work best with a sine
wave AC power source. The standard electric utility power attempts to provide a power
source that is a good approximation of a sine wave.

Sine wave inverters with more than three steps in the wave output are more complex
and have significantly higher cost than a modified sine wave, with only three steps, or
square wave (one step) types of the same power handling. Switch-mode power supply
(SMPS) devices, such as personal computers or DVD players, function on quality
modified sine wave power. AC motors directly operated on non-sinusoidal power may
produce extra heat, may have different speed-torque characteristics, or may produce
more audible noise than when running on sinusoidal power.

Fig- Sine Waveform

Most of the power source for most

applications is a 60Hz, 230v AC sine
wave, Identical to the 120V Vrms source
available. It is majorly available from some developed companies. Most of the low
power electronic household plug-in devices are designed to work with this source (high
power devices such as cooking ovens use a 240V source). These electronic equipments
will be most likely to work properly and most efficiently on such a voltage and current
sources. The full sine wave source is produced most easily for high power applications
through rotating electrical machinery such as naval gas-turbine machineries, homemade
applications of diesel or gasoline backup generators or other types of generators
employed by power companies that employs a shaft torque to create an AC current.

6
 These power sources provides a relatively clean, pure sine waves (lacking significant
harmonics and high frequency noise) thanks to their analog rotational things. Such as
rotating machinery can be an appropriate for low-power backup supply usage due to
their high cost, huge size and required maintenance. There are mainly useful for pure
sine wave applications.

The Non sinusoidal waveform generated is also called as a relaxation oscillator. The op
amp relaxation oscillator is also called as a square wave generator. The frequency of the
oscillator is f=1/T. Here T is also known as a Time and f is a frequency of the oscillator. In
this op-amp generator both Z1 and Z2. The unsymmetrical square wave can be had by
different square waves.

 Advantages of the Pure Sine Wave Inverter:

Office buildings considering a backup power inverter, a true sine wave model will allow
proper function of all electronic office equipment and fluorescent tube lighting. And
some of electronic equipments like a toyostove, battery chargers, electric drills, digital
clock radios or other sensitive electronics should consider a true sine wave inverter to
ensure proper functioning of all household appliances.

 Applications:

It can applicable many power applications like electric tube light, kitchen appliances,
power tools, TVs, radios, computers and many more electronics gadgets we are using.
Various inverters may have different features making them better suited for different
specific applications. Very small inverters are available that connect to a car cigarette
lighter, with a single three-prong AC outlet as the output. Large inverters are generally
designed to be hardwired into a building electrical system. Some inverters offer 240

7
 volts output. The right inverter for any specific use can be found with the help of an
experienced inverter dealer.

It’s will be useful in all electronic applications, when using pure sine wave power. True
sine wave inverters will produce AC power as well as a better than utility power,
Ensuring that even the most sensitive equipment will run properly. While sine wave
inverters are more expensive than modifying sine wave models, the quality of their
waveform can be a definite advantage.

c) Modified Sine Wave Inverter:

A "modified sine wave" inverter has a non-square waveform that is a useful rough
approximation of a sine wave for power translation purposes.

Most inexpensive consumer power inverters produce a modified sine wave rather than
a pure sine wave.

The waveform in commercially available modified-sine-wave inverters is a square wave

with a pause before the polarity reversal, which only needs to cycle back and forth
through a three-position switch that outputs forward, off, and reverse output at the pre-
determined frequency. Switching states are developed for positive, negative and zero
voltages as per the patterns given in the switching table. The peak voltage to RMS
voltage ratio does not maintain same relationship as for a sine wave. The DC bus voltage
may be actively regulated, or the "on" and "off" times can be modified to maintain the
same RMS value output up to the DC bus voltage to compensate for DC bus voltage
variations.

Fig- Modified Sine Waveform.

The ratio of on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while
maintaining a constant frequency with a technique called Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM). The generated gate pulses are given to each switch
in accordance with the developed pattern to obtain the desired output.
Harmonic spectrum in the output depends on the width of the pulses
and the modulation frequency. When operating induction motors,
voltage harmonics are usually not of concern; however, harmonic distortion in the
current waveform introduces additional heating and can produce pulsating torques.

8
 Numerous items of electric equipment will operate quite well on modified sine wave
power inverter devices, especially loads that are resistive in nature such as traditional
incandescent light bulbs.

However, the load may operate less efficiently owing to the harmonics associated with a
modified sine wave and produce a humming noise during operation. This also affects the
efficiency of the system as a whole, since the manufacturer's nominal conversion
efficiency does not account for harmonics. Therefore, pure sine wave inverters may
provide significantly higher efficiency than modified sine wave inverters.

Most AC motors will run on MSW inverters with an efficiency reduction of about 20%
owing to the harmonic content. However, they may be quite noisy. A series LC filter
tuned to the fundamental frequency may help.

A common modified sine wave inverter topology found in consumer power inverters is
as follows:

An onboard microcontroller rapidly switches on and off power MOSFETs at high

frequency like ~50 kHz. The MOSFETs directly pull from a low voltage DC source (such as
a battery). This signal then goes through step-up transformers (generally many smaller
transformers are placed in parallel to reduce the overall size of the inverter) to produce
a higher voltage signal. The output of the step-up transformers then gets filtered by
capacitors to produce a high voltage DC supply. Finally, this DC supply is pulsed with
additional power MOSFETs by the microcontroller to produce the final modified sine
wave signal.

3. Applications of Inverters:

a) DC Power Source Usage:

Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an
automobile. The unit shown provides up to 1.2 amperes of alternating current, or
enough to power two sixty watt light bulbs.
An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries or fuel cells to AC
electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC
equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired
voltage.

b) Uninterruptible power supplies:

9
 An Uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC
power when mains power is not available. When mains power is restored, a rectifier
supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.

What is an uninterruptible power supply?

One very common use for inverters is in emergency power supplies, also called
uninterruptible power supplies or uninterruptible power sources (both going by the
acronym UPS). If your household power fails in an outage (blackout), you might have a
UPS as a backup—but how does it work?

A typical UPS stores energy in electrical form using rechargeable batteries (some UPS
systems store energy in mechanical form using a high-speed flywheel, spun to high
speed by an electric motor). When the power is flowing normally, the batteries are
being trickle charged by DC, which is produced from the AC power supply using a
transformer and rectifier circuit. If the power fails, what you have at your disposal is
charged-up batteries that will produce direct current, but which need to produce
alternating current to power your home. So when the UPS is supplying energy, the
batteries pump DC through an inverter to produce AC.

A UPS is often combined with a surge protector and voltage optimization equipment to
produce a resilient power supply capable of surviving spikes, surges, over-voltage,
under-voltage, or a complete loss of power.

c) Electric Motor Speed Control:

Inverter circuits designed to produce a variable output voltage range are often used
within motor speed controllers. The DC power for the inverter section can be derived
from a normal AC wall outlet or some other source. Control and feedback circuitry is
used to adjust the final output of the inverter section which will ultimately determine
the speed of the motor operating under its mechanical load. Motor speed control needs
are numerous and include things like: industrial motor driven equipment, electric
vehicles, rail transport systems, and power tools. (See related: variable frequency drive)
Switching states are developed for positive, negative and zero voltages as per the
patterns given in the switching Table 1.The generated gate pulses are given to each
switch in accordance with the developed pattern and thus the output is obtained.

d) Power Grid:

Grid tied inverters are designed to feed into the electric power distribution system. They
transfer synchronously with the line and have as little harmonic content as possible.
They also need a means of detecting the presence of utility power for safety reasons, so
as not to continue to dangerously feed power to the grid during a power outage.

10
e) Solar Inverter:

A solar inverter is a balance of system (BOS) component of a photo-voltaic system and

can be used for both, grid connected and off-grid systems. Solar inverters have special
functions adapted for use with photo-voltaic arrays, including maximum power point
tracking and protection. Solar micro inverters differ from conventional converters, as an
individual micro-converter is attached to each solar panel. This can improve the overall
efficiency of the system. The output from several micro inverters is then combined and
often fed to the electrical grid.

f) Induction Heating:

Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use in induction
heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then
changes the DC power to high frequency AC power. Due to the reduction in the number
of DC sources employed, the structure becomes more reliable and the output voltage
has higher resolution due to an increase in the number of steps so that the reference
sinusoidal voltage can be better achieved. This configuration has recently become very
popular in AC power supply and adjustable speed drive applications. This new inverter
can avoid extra clamping diodes or voltage balancing capacitors.

There are three kinds of level shifted modulation techniques, namely:

 Phase Opposition Disposition (POD)

 Alternative Phase Opposition Disposition (APOD)
 Phase Disposition (PD)

g) HVDC Power Transmission:

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is
transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter
plant converts the power back to AC. The inverter must be synchronized with grid
frequency and phase and minimize harmonic generation.

The High Voltage DC transmission method can be useful for things like Solar power since
solar power is natively DC as it is.

h) Electroshock Weapons:

11
 Electroshock weapons and tasers have a DC/AC inverter to generate several tens of
thousands of V AC out of a small 9 V DC battery. First the 9 V DC is converted to 400–
2000 V AC with a compact high frequency transformer, which is then rectified and
temporarily stored in a high voltage capacitor until a pre-set threshold voltage is
reached. When the threshold (set by way of an air-gap or TRIAC) is reached, the
capacitor dumps its entire load into a pulse transformer which then steps it up to its
final output voltage of 20–60 kV. A variant of the principle is also used in electronic flash
and bug zappers, though they rely on a capacitor-based voltage multiplier to achieve
their high voltage.

4. Inverter Topologies:

Regarding inverters, there are several topologies available, being the most common
ones Half Bridge and Full Bridge. This section collects a brief explanation of them.

a) Half-Bridge:

In this topology, only two switchers are required. The DC input is divided in two
identical sources and the output is referenced to the middle point.

Fig- Single-phase Half-Bridge voltage inverter

A capacitor divisor is used to achieve the medium voltage point (N). By controlling the
voltage in N, direct current injected in the alternate side is assured to be zero.

In addition to this, only one switching cell is required. Therefore, it is a cheap alternative
and the conducting losses are not excessively high.

12
 On the other hand, in order to obtain the same value of power, higher currents are
required, as voltage is lower. In case a high voltage is needed in the output, an elevator
is commonly used as first step, as the input voltage must be double than the output
desired. Regarding switching losses, the semiconductors must be designed for 2Vout.
This fact makes this topology the worst in performance, as switching losses become
excessively high.

b) Full-H Bridge:

In a Full H-Bridge, the alternate output voltage (V ab in Figure 2.18) is obtained by the
difference between two branches of switching cells. Therefore, four switchers are
needed. To maximize the fundamental component of the output voltage, the
fundamental component of the voltage on each branch (V ao and Vbo) must be 1800 out of
phase. The semiconductors of each branch are complementary in performance, which is
to say when one is conducting the other is cut-off and vice versa. This topology is the
most widely used for inverters.

Fig-Single-phase Full H-Bridge voltage inverter

The semiconductors must be designed only for V out, but as a disadvantage, four
switchers are required and therefore, losses can become elevate.

CHAPTER-2
COMPONENTS

13
1. Transformer:

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or

more circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces
an electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic
fields. Transformers are used to increase or decrease alternating voltages in electric
power applications.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in
the transformer core and a varying field impinging on the transformer's secondary
winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic
induction. Making use of Faraday's Law in conjunction with very high magnetic
permeability core properties, transformers can be designed to change, efficiently AC
voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks.

Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885, transformers
have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating
current electrical energy. A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in the
electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF
transformers less than a 20 cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the
power grid weighing hundreds of tons.

Fig- Transformer

Transformers are used to increase (or step-up) voltage before transmitting electrical
energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance which loses energy
through joule heating at a rate corresponding to square of current. By transforming
power to a higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of power and
distribution.

14
 Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting
generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but tiny fraction of the
world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it
reaches the consumer.

Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to decrease (or step-
down) the supply voltage to the level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain.
The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply
voltage.

Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match
devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio
transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a
single pair of wires. A balun transformer converts the signal that is referenced to ground
to the signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and
internal circuits.

2. Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator generates a fixed output voltage of a preset magnitude that remains
constant regardless of changes to its input voltage or load conditions. There are two
types of voltage regulators: linear and switching.

A linear regulator employs an active (BJT or MOSFET) pass device (series or shunt)
controlled by a high gain differential amplifier. It compares the output voltage with a
precise reference voltage and adjusts the pass device to maintain a constant output
voltage.

A switching regulator converts the dc input voltage to a switched voltage applied to a

power MOSFET or BJT switch. The filtered power switch output voltage is fed back to a
circuit that controls the power switch on and off times so that the output voltage
remains constant regardless of input voltage or load current changes.

15
 Fig- LM317 Pin-out diagram

LM317 is a regulated integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear

voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would
not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage
at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to
provide. LM317 provides +37V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values
may be connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage
levels.

3. IC CD4047:

A multi-vibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-

state devices such as relaxation oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It consists of
two amplifying devices (transistors, vacuum tubes or other devices) cross-coupled
by resistors or capacitors. 

The first multi-vibrator circuit, the astable multi-vibrator oscillator, was invented

by Henri Abraham and Eugene Bloch during World War I. They called their circuit a
"multi-vibrator" because its output waveform was rich in harmonics.

The three types of multi-vibrator circuits are:

 Astable Multi-vibrator:

In which the circuit is not stable in either state —it continually switches from one state
to the other. It functions as a relaxation oscillator.

 Monostable Multi-vibrator:

In which one of the states is stable, but the other state is unstable (transient). A trigger
pulse causes the circuit to enter the unstable state. After entering the unstable state,

16
 the circuit will return to the stable state after a set time. Such a circuit is useful for
creating a timing period of fixed duration in response to some external event. This
circuit is also known as a one shot.

 Bistable Multi-vibrator:

In which the circuit is stable in either state. It can be flipped from one state to the other
by an external trigger pulse. This circuit is also known as a flip-flop. It can store
one bit of information, and is widely used in digital logic and computer memory.

Multi-vibrators find applications in a variety of systems where square waves or timed

intervals are required. For example, before the advent of low-cost integrated circuits,
chains of multi-vibrators found use as frequency dividers. A free-running multi-vibrator
with a frequency of one-half to one-tenth of the reference frequency would accurately
lock to the reference frequency. This technique was used in early electronic organs, to
keep notes of different octaves accurately in tune. Other applications included
early television systems, where the various line and frame frequencies were kept
synchronized by pulses included in the video signal.

 Pin-Out of CD4047 IC:

CD4047BMS consists of a gatable astable multivibrator with logic techniques

incorporated to permit positive or negative edge triggered monostable multivibrator
action with retriggering and external counting options.

Inputs include +TRIGGER, -TRIGGER, ASTABLE, ASTABLE, RETRIGGER, and EXTERNAL

RESET. Buffered outputs are Q, Q, and OSCILLATOR. In all modes of operation, an
external capacitor must be connected between C-Timing and RC-Common terminals,
and an external resistor must be connected between the R-Timing and RC common
terminals.

Astable operation is enabled by a high level on the ASTABLE input or a low level on the
ASTABLE input, or both. The period of the square wave at the Q and Q Outputs in this
mode of operation is a function of the external components employed. “True” input
pulses on the ASTABLE input or “Complement” pulses on the ASTABLE input allow the
circuit to be used as a gatable multivibrator. The OSCILLATOR output period will be half
of the Q terminal output in the astable mode. However, a 50% duty cycle is not
guaranteed at this output.

17
 The CD4047BMS triggers in the monostable mode when a positive going edge occurs on
the +TRIGGER input while the -TRIGGER is held low. Input pulses may be of any duration
relative to the output pulse.
If retrigger capability is desired, the RETRIGGER input is pulsed. The re-triggerable mode
of operation is limited to positive going edge. The CD4047BMS will retrigger as long as
the RETRIGGER input is high, with or without transitions.

An external countdown option can be implemented by coupling “Q” to an external “N”

counter and resetting the counter with trigger pulse. The counter output pulse is fed
back to the ASTABLE input and has a duration equal to N times the period of the
multivibrator.

A high level on the EXTERNAL RESET input assures no output pulse during an “ON”
power condition. This input can also be activated to terminate the output pulse at any
time. For monostable operation, whenever VDD is applied, an internal power on reset
circuit will clock the Q output low within one output period (tM).

Fig- Pin diagram of CD4047 IC

4. LM358 IC:

The LM358 series consists of two independent, high gain, internally frequency
compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a
single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies
is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude
of the power supply voltage.

Application areas include transducer amplifiers, dc gain blocks and all the conventional
op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply

18
 systems. For example, the LM358 series can be directly operated from the standard +5V
power supply voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the
required interface electronics without requiring an additional ±15V power supply.

 Features:

 Internally frequency compensated for unity gain.

 Large dc voltage gain: 100 dB.

 Very low supply current drain (500μA); essentially independent of supply voltage.

 Wide bandwidth (unity gain): 1MHz (temperature compensated).

 Input common-mode voltage range includes ground.

 Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage.

 Low input offset voltage: 2mV.

 Wide power supply range:

 Single supply: 3V to 32V
 Dual supplies: ±1.5V to ±16V.

 Large output voltage swing: 0V to V+ - 1.5V.

 “Green” Molding Compound (No Br, Sb).

 Lead Free Finish/ RoHS compliant .

 Pin Diagram of CD4047 IC:

Fig- Pin diagram LM358 IC

19
 Applications:

 Eliminates the need for dual supplies.

 Compatible with all forms of logic.

 Two internally compensated op-amps.

 Low power drain ideal for battery operation.

 Allows direct sensing near GND.

 VOUT can swing to GND.

 Unique Characteristics:

 In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the
output voltage can also swing to ground, whilst operating from only a single power
supply voltage.

 The unity gain crossing frequency is temperature compensated.

 The input bias current is temperature compensated.

5. Semiconductors:

Power semiconductors are the main part of the switching cell. The inverter’s features
depend largely on their performance and characteristics. Basically, all semiconductors
consist of PN junctions. Those are achieved doping silicon with boron (P layer) or
phosphorus (N layer). When a certain voltage is applied to the junction, the internal
charges move, letting the current flow through it. If the voltage is not enough, the
charges do not flow and therefore the semiconductor acts like a blocker. An ideal
semiconductor would perform as an ideal switch, being its main characteristics on- and
off-control, instantaneous switching, null impedance in conducting and infinite
impedance in cut-off. Also, reversibility regarding current and voltage and the voltage
range in conducting are issues that define a semiconductor.

In this section, a brief insight into different semiconductors will be given.

20
 Diode (1N4007):

A diode consist of a single PN junction. It is the simplest semiconductor and has no on-
and off-control. Its symbol and structure are reflected in Figure.

Fig- Symbol and structure of a diode

When a positive voltage over a specific value (Threshold voltage) is applied between P
(anode) and N (cathode) it conducts, whereas a negative voltage results in the cut-off of
the diode. However, there is a limit for negative voltage applied, as the PN junction can
be broken.

Figure shows the static characteristic of a diode. Three main areas can be observed:
forward direction (diode conducting), blocking area (diode cut) and break through
(diode destroyed).

 BJT (BC547):

21
 Two PN junctions result in a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). The basis of this
semiconductor is to amplify current. Applying a positive voltage between collector (C)
and emitter (E) is not enough to make it conduct. Therefore, it is required to introduce a
positive current on the base in order to achieve current circulation, with a base-to
emitter voltage (VBE) over the threshold value.

Fig- BJT symbol and structure

BJTs have current gains in the order of 10 for comparatively high voltage drops. As one
of their drawbacks, it is necessary to introduce high currents on the base in order to
make the device work in the forward-active area (amplification of current). Also, high
reverse base drive currents are required to obtain a fast turn-off. For these reasons,
they are not commonly used in power electronics.

 MOSFET (IFRZ44):
The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor or MOSFET is a voltage
controlled semiconductor, unlike BJT, that is current controlled.

There are two types of MOSFETs: channel N and channel P, but this last one is not
commonly used in power electronics. The voltage control is between gate and source,
and normally must be above 10 Volts in order to switch on the semiconductor. Structure
and symbol of an N-Channel MOSFET are shown in Figure.

Fig- Structure and symbol of an N-Channel MOSFET

22
 Basically, in order to turn it on, a voltage between gate and source (V GS) must be
applied. This fact, together with a positive voltage between drain and source (V DS), result
in an electron channel that allows a current flow in the drain (I D).

This semiconductor is commonly used in low voltage and low power applications, as
microelectronics. Also, when a high switching frequency is required.

Fig- Static behavior of an N-Channel MOSFET

Regarding their static behavior, reflected in figure, MOSFETs can operate between the
breakdown voltage and the maximum direct voltage. Below and over these values, the
semiconductor gets into avalanche and the junctions are destroyed. When conducting in
the ohmic region, MOSFETs behave as a resistor, amplifying the current. On the other
hand, in the active region the current is linear.

 Power MOSFET:
As a concrete type of MOSFETs, Power MOSFETs are specially designed to handle higher
power levels. Due to their low gate drive power, fast switching speed and good
paralleling capability, they are commonly used in power electronics.

The most common structure in Power MOSFETs is the Vertical Diffused MOS (VDMOS),
with the source electrode over the drain, which results in a vertical current when the

23
 device is conducting. Whereas Lateral Diffused MOS (LDMOS) are mainly used in high-
end audio amplifiers, VDMOS are the option normally selected for switching
applications.

Fig- Cross section of a VDMOS, showing an elementary cell

The internal structure of an elementary cell of a VDMOS is shown in Figure. The

complete semiconductor is composed of several thousands of cells.

The source metallization connects N+ and P implantations, creating a diode between the
drain (cathode) and the source (anode) of the MOSFET. This body diode can be
employed as freewheeling diode in H-Bridge configurations.

The main difference between Power MOSFETs and normal MOSFETs is the current
capacity and the gate capacitance. Whereas normal MOSFETs perform better in higher
frequencies, Power MOSFETs are a better option regarding high current and voltage
applications. Also, power MOSFETs have much lower resistance while conducting,
minimizing conducting losses.

 IGBT:

The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor is similar to a MOSFET but with a third PN-
junction. This allows controlling it with voltage, as a MOSFET, but with output
characteristics similar to a BJT regarding high loads and low saturation voltage. Its
schematic structure and symbol are reflected in Figure.

24
 Fig-Structure and symbol of an IGBT

Four main regions can be observed on its static behavior. From the left to the right in
figure, the avalanche region is the area when a voltage below breakdown voltage is
applied, resulting in the destruction of the IGBT. The cut area includes values from
breakdown voltage up to threshold voltage. The IGBT does not conduct in this region.
On the saturation region, the IGBT behaves as a voltage source and a series resistance.
With low variations of voltage, high amplification of current can be achieved. This area is
the most desirable for working. If the voltage is augmented, the IGBT enters in active
region, and current remains constant. There is a maximum voltage applied in order the
IGBT not to enter in avalanche.

Fig-: Static behavior of an IGBT

It is the most used semiconductor in power electronics, given that it can support a wide
range of voltage from few volts to kV and powers between kW and MW. Also, in
applications with switching frequencies lower than 20 kHz, it is the semiconductor
commonly selected.

25
 Other Semiconductors:

IGBTs and MOSFETs are the most used semiconductors in power electronics. However,
especially in very high power, other semiconductors like THYRISTORs or GTOs are
employed.

Fig- Selection of semiconductors regarding capacity and operation frequency

In Figure, a selection of semiconductors depending on power and operation frequency is

resumed. Regarding power, at low frequencies SCR (a type of THYRISTORs) are the most
used. As frequency increases, they are replaced by GTOs or IGBTs. Finally, with high
frequencies MOSFETs are the semiconductors selected, as their switching losses are
lower comparing with the rest. From the graph, it is remarkable the lack of
semiconductors with both high frequency and high power performance. The difficulty of
combining both features is directly related to losses and heat evacuation.

 Selection of Semiconductors for an Inverter:

The selection of the interrupters depends on the reversibility required for the voltage
and the current source. On an inverter, it is only necessary current reversibility. Hence,
an interrupter of three segments must be chosen.

Selecting a transistor and a diode in anti-parallel, the turning-on of the transistor can
be controlled with voltage. When the voltage applied is positive and an on-order is
given, the transistor conducts and the current is positive. If the voltage is negative, the
diode conducts and the current is negative.

26
 Fig- Semiconductors chosen

Whereas the diode is always in a switching cell, different transistors can be chosen.
Criteria applied for the decision regards applications, switching frequency, velocity and
voltage required. On Chapter 3, a discussion about the best semiconductor to choose
will be held.

6. Battery (12V ,7Ah):

The runtime of an inverter is dependent on the battery power and the amount of power
being drawn from the inverter at a given time. As the amount of equipment using the
inverter increases, the runtime will decrease. In order to prolong the runtime of an
inverter, additional batteries can be added to the inverter. When attempting to add
more batteries to an inverter, there are two basic options for installation: Series
Configuration and Parallel Configuration.

 Series configuration:

If the goal is to increase the overall voltage of the inverter, one can daisy chain batteries
in a Series Configuration. In a Series Configuration, if a single battery dies, the other
batteries will not be able to power the load.

 Parallel configuration:
If the goal is to increase capacity and prolong the runtime of the inverter, batteries can
be connected in parallel. This increases the overall Ampere-hour(Ah) rating of the
battery set.

CHAPTER-3

27
 PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

1. Block Diagram:

Fig- Block Diagram of an Basic Inverter

An inverter is used to produce an un-interrupted 220V AC or 110V AC (depending on the

line voltage of the particular country) supply to the device connected as the load at the
output socket. The inverter gives constant AC voltage at its output socket when the AC
mains power supply is not available.

Lets look how the inverter makes this possible. To grasp the functioning of an inverter
we should consider in the following situations.

 When the AC mains power supply is available.

 When the AC mains power supply is not available.
 When the AC mains power supply is available:

28
 When the AC mains supply is available, the AC mains sensor senses it and the supply
goes to the Relay and battery charging section of the inverter.AC main sensor activates a
relay and this relay will directly pass the AC mains supply to the output socket. The load
will by driven by the line voltage in this situation. Also the line voltage is given to the
battery charging section where the line voltage is converted to a DC voltage (12V DC or
24V DC usually), then regulated and battery is charged using it. There are special circuits
for sensing the battery voltage and when the battery is fully charged the charging is
stopped. In some inverters there will be a trickle charging circuit which keeps the
battery constantly at full charge.

 When the AC mains power supply is not available:

When the AC mains power supply is not available, an oscillator circuit inside the inverter
produces a 50Hz MOS drive signal. This MOS drive signal will be amplified by the driver
section and sent to the output section. MOSFETs or Transistors are used for the
switching operation. These MOSFETs or Transistors are connected to the primary
winding of the inverter transformer. When these switching devices receive the MOS
drive signal from the driver circuit, they start switching between ON & OFF states at a
rate of 50 Hz. This switching action of the MOSFETs or Transistors cause a 50Hz current
to the primary of the inverter transformer. This results in a 220V AC or 110V AC
(depending on the winding ratio of the inverter transformer) at the secondary or the
inverter transformer. This secondary voltage is made available at the output socket of
the inverter by a changeover relay.

 Automation in an Inverter:

Inverter contains various circuits to automatically sense and tackle various situations
that may occur when the inverter is running or in standby. This automaton section looks
after conditions such as overload, over heat, low battery, over charge etc. Respective of
the situation, the automation section may switch the battery to charging mode or switch
OFF. The various conditions will be indicated to the operator by means of glowing LEDs
or sounding alarms. In advanced inverters LCD screens are used to visually indicate the
conditions.

2. Circuit Diagram:

29
CHAPTER-4
HARDWARE

30
1. Charging Circuit for Battery:

Fig- Charging circuit for 12V, 7Ah battery.

Most battery chargers stop charging the battery when it attains its maximum charging
voltage set by the circuit. This 12V battery charger circuit charges the battery at a
particular voltage, that is, absorption voltage, and once the maximum charging voltage
is attained, the charger changes the output voltage to float voltage for maintaining the
battery at that voltage. Absorption and floating voltages are dependent on the type of
battery.

For this charger, voltages are set for a sealed lead-acid (SLA) 12V, 7Ah battery, for which
absorption voltage is 14.1V to 14.3V and floating voltage is 13.6V to 13.8V. For safe
working and to avoid overcharging of battery, absorption voltage is selected as 14.1V
and floating voltage is selected as 13.6V. These values are to be set as specified by the
battery manufacturer.

Circuit diagram of the 12V battery absorb and float charger is shown in Fig. It is built
around step-down transformer X1, adjustable voltage regulator LM317 (IC1), op-amp
comparator LM358 (IC2) and a few other components. The 230V AC primary to 15V-0-
15V, 1A secondary transformer used in this circuit steps down mains voltage, which is
rectified by diodes D1 and D2 and smoothened by capacitor C1.This voltage is given to
the input of LM317 for regulation.

31
The basic circuit is a regulated power supply using LM317, with a control on output by
changing resistance at adjust pin 1. A good heat-sink is required for LM317. LM358 is a
dual-operation amplifier that is used here to control overcharging of the battery.
Capacitor C4 should be as near as possible to pin 1 of IC2. Jumper J1 is used for
calibration (set-up). While setting the charging voltage, remove the jumper and connect
it back after calibration.

For initial setup, remove jumper J1, switch off S2, switch on S1 and adjust potmeter VR2
to get 13.6V at test point TP2. Adjust potmeter VR3, so that LED2 begins to glow. Adjust
potmeter VR1 to read 0.5V (difference of 14.1V and 13.6V) at test point TP1. Adjust VR2
to read 14.1V at test point TP2.

With these settings, TP2 should read 14.1V when there is low voltage at test point TP3,
and 13.6V when there is high voltage at test point TP3. Connect jumper J1. The charger
is now ready for use. Connect the 12V battery under charging (BUC), with correct
polarity, at CON2. Switch on S2; one of the LEDs out of LED2 and LED3 will light up (most
likely it would be LED2). If neither of these light up, check the connections; battery could
be dead. Switch on S1 for charging. Fully charged status of the battery will be indicated
by glowing of LED3.

 Do not worry if you forget to switch off the charger. The charger is on floating voltage
(13.6V) now and it can be kept in this charging mode forever.

32
33
 Cautions:

 Switch off S2 or disconnect battery terminals to avoid unnecessary discharge of

battery when not charging, that is, when S1 is switched off.

 Connect the battery with correct polarity.

 Casing of IC1 should not be connected to ground, so use insulation.

2. Inverter Circuit:

Fig- Inverter Circuit

Here is the circuit diagram of a simple 100w inverter using IC CD4047 and MOSFET
IRF540. The circuit is simple a low cost. CD 4047 is a low power CMOS a stable
/monostable multi-vibrator IC. Here it is wired as an a stable Multivibrator producing
two pulse trains of 0.01s which are 180 degree out of phase at the pins 10 and 11 of the
IC. Pin 10 is connected to the Q1 and pin 11 is connected to the gate of Q2. Resistor R3
and R4 prevents the loading of the IC by the respective MOSFETs. When pin 10 is high,
Q1 connects and current flows through the upper half of the transformer primary which
accounts for the positive half of the output AC voltage. When pin 11 is high Q2 conducts
and current flows through the lower half of the transformer primary in opposite
direction.

34
 3. Reverse Polarity Protection for Circuit:

Select a relay to operate with the reverse-polarity voltage. For example, use a 12V relay
for a 12V supply system. When you apply correct polarity to the circuit, D 1 becomes
reverse-biased, and the S1 relay remains off. Then connect the input- and output-power
lines to the normally connected pins of the relay, so current flows to the end circuit.
Diode D1 blocks power to the relay, and the protection circuit dissipates no power.

Fig- You can wire a relay switch to pass power to your system with no power loss.
D2 clamps inductive kicks from the relay coil.

When you apply incorrect reversed polarity, diode D 1 becomes forward-biased, turning
on the relay fig. Turning on the relay cuts the power supply to the end circuit, and red
LED D3 turns on, indicating a reverse voltage. The circuit consumes power only if reverse
polarity is applied. Unlike FETs or semiconductor switches, relay contact switches have
low on-resistance, meaning that they cause no voltage drop between the input supply
and the circuit requiring protection. Thus, the design is suitable for systems with tight
voltage margins.

Fig- With reversed input voltage, the relay switch engages, interrupting power to the system,
and the LED lights.

35
4. Working Model of Inverter:

 Inverter Circuit:

36
 Charging Circuit for Battery:

 Reverse Polarity Protection for Circuit:

37
CHAPTER-4

38
 DISCUSSION

The advantage of using pulse width modulated inverter over simple inverter is that it
reduce harmonics to minimum and thus improves the efficiency of the inverter. Further
PWM inverter can be used for the speed control of Induction motor.

Closed loop V/f speed control method can be used to provide wide range of speed control of
the induction motor.

We have fabricated a single phase inverter using CD4047 monostable multivibrator. This
multi vibrator produced two signal Q1 and Q2 which are 180 degree phase shifted. The
frequency of signal generated depends upon the RC combination. Here in our model we
have generated a 50 Hz signal. However the losses are significant in this case.

CHAPTER-5

39
 CONCLUSION

Using the theoretical background we have successfully simulated different types of Voltage
Source Inverter such as Single phase VSI, Three phase VSI (180 degree conduction mode),
Single phase PWM Inverter. Further using this PWM Inverter we have simulated the circuit
for speed control of Induction motor using closed loop V/f control.

Using a monostable multivibrator (CD4047) we have designed a single phase inverter which
successfully convert the 12 V dc signal into 120 V, 50 Hz ac signal.

CHAPTER-6

40
 REFERENCES

 Muhammad H. Rashid Power, electronics handbook 2nd edition.

 Hart, D, Upper Saddle River and NJ: Prentice Hal, Introduction to Power Electronics.

 P.S. Bhimbra, Power Electronics.

 M Rashid, Power Electronics.

 National semiconductor 7815 datasheet

 National semiconductor 7915 datasheet

 Texas Instruments CD4047 datasheet

 www.wekipedia.com

41