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Mathematics For Economics: Euncheol Shin

This document is a lecture on mathematics for economics that covers number systems including natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. It defines these number systems, proves some of their key properties, and outlines the structure of the lecture. The lecture will introduce functions and sequences after reviewing number systems, and will cover the definitions of natural numbers, integers, rational numbers which are defined as fractions of integers, and real numbers which complete the rational numbers by adding limits.
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© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
39 views

Mathematics For Economics: Euncheol Shin

This document is a lecture on mathematics for economics that covers number systems including natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. It defines these number systems, proves some of their key properties, and outlines the structure of the lecture. The lecture will introduce functions and sequences after reviewing number systems, and will cover the definitions of natural numbers, integers, rational numbers which are defined as fractions of integers, and real numbers which complete the rational numbers by adding limits.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Mathematics for Economics

Euncheol Shin

Kyung Hee University


[email protected]

Lecture 4

1 / 18
Recall

Functions

Definition

Injective and surjective functions

Inverse function

2 / 18
Outline

A brief introduction to number systems

Natural numbers (N) and integers (Z)

Rational numbers (Q)

Real numbers (R)

Sequences in R

3 / 18
Natural Numbers and Integers

The set of natural numbers:

N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }

4 / 18
Natural Numbers and Integers

The set of natural numbers:

N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }

In other words, N is the set of nonnegative integers: N = Z+

4 / 18
Natural Numbers and Integers

The set of natural numbers:

N = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }

In other words, N is the set of nonnegative integers: N = Z+

Z− = {0, −1, −2, −3, . . . } is the set of nonpositive integers

Z = Z+ ∪ Z−

[Figures Here]

4 / 18
Rational Numbers
The set of intergers does not contain a multiplicative inverse

5 / 18
Rational Numbers
The set of intergers does not contain a multiplicative inverse

For given two integers, we can operate + and ·

Thus, it makes sense to consider a simple linear equation like

2·x=1

However, we cannot solve this equation in Z

5 / 18
Rational Numbers
The set of intergers does not contain a multiplicative inverse

For given two integers, we can operate + and ·

Thus, it makes sense to consider a simple linear equation like

2·x=1

However, we cannot solve this equation in Z

As you know, we solve those equations in Q:


nm o
Q = {the collection of all fractions} = | m, n ∈ Z and n 6= 0
n
5 / 18
Rational Numbers

Proposition
For any two rationals p and q with p > q, there exists r ∈ Q such that
p > r > q.

[Proof Here]

Meaning: Q is dense!

6 / 18
Rational Numbers

Proposition
For any two rationals p and q with p > q, there exists r ∈ Q such that
p > r > q.

[Proof Here]

Meaning: Q is dense!

Q is still not enough!

6 / 18
Real Numbers

Consider the following example:

x2 = 2

This equation does not have a solution in Q


[Proof Here]

7 / 18
Real Numbers

There are two rational number p and q such that p2 > 2 > q 2

We now know that there is no r ∈ Q with r2 = 2

8 / 18
Real Numbers

There are two rational number p and q such that p2 > 2 > q 2

We now know that there is no r ∈ Q with r2 = 2

It is like there is a hole in the set of rational numbers!

Thus, we wish to complete Q by filling up such holes with new


numbers

8 / 18
Real Numbers

There are two rational number p and q such that p2 > 2 > q 2

We now know that there is no r ∈ Q with r2 = 2

It is like there is a hole in the set of rational numbers!

Thus, we wish to complete Q by filling up such holes with new


numbers

Question: How do we formalize this idea?

8 / 18
Real Numbers
Definition
A set S ⊆ R is said to be bounded above if there is a real number a
such that x ≤ a for all x ∈ S.

The number s∗ is said to be the supremum of S (or the least upper


bound of S) if s∗ is an upper bound of S and s∗ ≤ a for all upper
bounds of S.

[Figures Here]

9 / 18
Real Numbers
Definition
A set S ⊆ R is said to be bounded above if there is a real number a
such that x ≤ a for all x ∈ S.

The number s∗ is said to be the supremum of S (or the least upper


bound of S) if s∗ is an upper bound of S and s∗ ≤ a for all upper
bounds of S.

[Figures Here]

Similarly, we define a set S is said to be bounded below if there


is a real number b such that b ≤ x for all x ∈ S

The number s∗ is said to be the infimum of S (or the greatest


lower bound of S) if s∗ is an upper bound of S and b ≤ s∗

9 / 18
Real Numbers

Axiom
( The Completeness Axiom) Every nonempty subset S of R which is
bounded above has a supremum in R.

This is the main difference between Q and R

10 / 18
Real Numbers

Axiom
( The Completeness Axiom) Every nonempty subset S of R which is
bounded above has a supremum in R.

This is the main difference between Q and R

Example: S = q ∈ Q | q 2 < 2 does not have a supremum in Q




10 / 18
Real Numbers

Axiom
( The Completeness Axiom) Every nonempty subset S of R which is
bounded above has a supremum in R.

This is the main difference between Q and R

Example: S = q ∈ Q | q 2 < 2 does not have a supremum in Q




In this regard, R is called a complete ordered field

10 / 18
Real Numbers

Proposition (Archimedean Property)


Let x ∈ R++ and y ∈ R. Then, there exists n ∈ N such that y < m · x.

Proof.
Suppose not.

11 / 18
Real Numbers

Proposition (Archimedean Property)


Let x ∈ R++ and y ∈ R. Then, there exists n ∈ N such that y < m · x.

Proof.
Suppose not.

That is, S = {m · x |m ∈ N} is bounded above. (WHY?)

11 / 18
Real Numbers

Proposition (Archimedean Property)


Let x ∈ R++ and y ∈ R. Then, there exists n ∈ N such that y < m · x.

Proof.
Suppose not.

That is, S = {m · x |m ∈ N} is bounded above. (WHY?)

Then, sup S is a real number. (WHY?)

11 / 18
Real Numbers

Proposition (Archimedean Property)


Let x ∈ R++ and y ∈ R. Then, there exists n ∈ N such that y < m · x.

Proof.
Suppose not.

That is, S = {m · x |m ∈ N} is bounded above. (WHY?)

Then, sup S is a real number. (WHY?)

Since x > 0, sup S − x > 0 is not an upper bound of S. (WHY?)

11 / 18
Real Numbers

Proposition (Archimedean Property)


Let x ∈ R++ and y ∈ R. Then, there exists n ∈ N such that y < m · x.

Proof.
Suppose not.

That is, S = {m · x |m ∈ N} is bounded above. (WHY?)

Then, sup S is a real number. (WHY?)

Since x > 0, sup S − x > 0 is not an upper bound of S. (WHY?)

Thus, there exists m0 ∈ N such that m0 · x ≥ sup S − x.

11 / 18
Real Numbers

Proposition (Archimedean Property)


Let x ∈ R++ and y ∈ R. Then, there exists n ∈ N such that y < m · x.

Proof.
Suppose not.

That is, S = {m · x |m ∈ N} is bounded above. (WHY?)

Then, sup S is a real number. (WHY?)

Since x > 0, sup S − x > 0 is not an upper bound of S. (WHY?)

Thus, there exists m0 ∈ N such that m0 · x ≥ sup S − x.

That is, sup S is not an upper bound of S. Contradiction! (WHY?)

11 / 18
Real Numbers
Proposition (R is dense)
Let x and y be real numbers with x < y. Then, there exists q ∈ Q such
that x < q < y.

Proof.
By the assumption, y − x > 0.

12 / 18
Real Numbers
Proposition (R is dense)
Let x and y be real numbers with x < y. Then, there exists q ∈ Q such
that x < q < y.

Proof.
By the assumption, y − x > 0.

By the Archimedean Property, there exists m ∈ N such that


m · (y − x) > 1.

12 / 18
Real Numbers
Proposition (R is dense)
Let x and y be real numbers with x < y. Then, there exists q ∈ Q such
that x < q < y.

Proof.
By the assumption, y − x > 0.

By the Archimedean Property, there exists m ∈ N such that


m · (y − x) > 1.

Let n := min {k ∈ Z | k > m · x}.

12 / 18
Real Numbers
Proposition (R is dense)
Let x and y be real numbers with x < y. Then, there exists q ∈ Q such
that x < q < y.

Proof.
By the assumption, y − x > 0.

By the Archimedean Property, there exists m ∈ N such that


m · (y − x) > 1.

Let n := min {k ∈ Z | k > m · x}.

Then, it follows that


m · x < n ≤ m · x + 1 < m · y.

12 / 18
Real Numbers
Proposition (R is dense)
Let x and y be real numbers with x < y. Then, there exists q ∈ Q such
that x < q < y.

Proof.
By the assumption, y − x > 0.

By the Archimedean Property, there exists m ∈ N such that


m · (y − x) > 1.

Let n := min {k ∈ Z | k > m · x}.

Then, it follows that


m · x < n ≤ m · x + 1 < m · y.

n
Therefore, q := m is the desired rational number. (WHY?)
12 / 18
Sequences

Definition
A sequence in a nonempty set X is a function f : N → X.

Instead of f , we represent a sequence in X as (x1 , x2 , . . . ) as

xn = f (n) for all i ∈ N

Simply, we also write (xn )∞


n=1

13 / 18
Sequences

Definition
A sequence in a nonempty set X is a function f : N → X.

Instead of f , we represent a sequence in X as (x1 , x2 , . . . ) as

xn = f (n) for all i ∈ N

Simply, we also write (xn )∞


n=1

A sequence is said to be a real sequence if X = R

13 / 18
Real Sequences

Definition
A sequence (xn )∞
n=1 is said to converge to x if for each ε > 0, there
exists N ∈ N such that
|xn − x| < ε for all n ≥ N .

x is called the limit of the sequence

We write xn → x as n → ∞ or lim xn = x
n→∞

A sequence is said to be diveregent if it is not convergent

[Figures Here]

14 / 18
Real Sequences: Examples

(xn )∞
n=1 defined as xn =
1
n converges to zero

(xn )∞ n
n=1 defined as xn = (−1) is divergent

15 / 18
Real Sequences

Proposition
Let x ∈ R be a real number. Then, there exists a sequence of rational
numbers, say (qn )∞
n=1 , such that qn → x as n → ∞.

[Proof Here]

16 / 18
Real Sequences

Proposition
If (xn )∞
n=1 is a convergent real sequence such that xn → x and
xn → y, then x = y.

[Proof Here]

17 / 18
Next Lecture

Sequences

18 / 18

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