UNIT 1.

INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

On completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1 Define a Computer network

2 Describe the different types of computer networks

TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can
be as small as distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as
large as the internet itself, covering the whole geographical world.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user.
This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has
connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and
mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers, and TV remotes.

Figure 5.0 The Personal Area Network

source : www.computersource.com
Local Area Network
A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative
system is generally termed as Local Area Network (LAN). Usually, LAN covers an
organization offices, schools, colleges or universities. Number of systems connected in
LAN may vary from as least as two to as much as 16 million LAN provides a useful way
of sharing the resources between end users. The resources such as printers, file servers,
scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.
Figure 5.1 Local Area Network

source : www.computersource.com
LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains
local servers serving file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates
on private IP addresses and does not involve heavy routing. LAN works under its own
local domain and controlled centrally.
LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most widely employed
LAN technology and uses Star topology, while Token-ring is rarely seen. LAN can be
wired, wireless, or in both forms at once.
Metropolitan Area Network
The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as
cable TV network. It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to
expand their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to
connect all of its offices in a city.
Figure 5.2 Metro Area Network

source : www.computersource.com

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between
Local Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs
or internet.

Wide Area Network

As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may
span across provinces and even a whole country. Generally, telecommunication networks
are Wide Area Network. These networks provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since
they are equipped with very high speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network
equipment.
Figure 5.3. Wide Area Network

source : www.computersource.com
WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by
multiple administration.

Internetwork
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest
network in existence on this planet. The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can
have connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and
uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using
IPv4. Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.
Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information
worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio, and video streaming etc. At huge
level, internet works on Client-Server model.
Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various
continents, fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.
Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages and
is accessible by client software known as Web Browsers. When a user requests a page
using some web browser located on some Web Server anywhere in the world, the Web
Server responds with the proper HTML page. The communication delay is very low.
Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life. Some of them
are:

 Web sites
 E-mail
 Instant Messaging
 Blogging
 Social Media
 Marketing
 Networking
 Resource Sharing
 Audio and Video Streaming
Classification of Computer Networks
Computer networks are classified based on various factors. They include:
 Geographical span
 Inter-connectivity
 Administration
 Architecture

Geographical Span
Geographically a network can be seen in one of the following categories:
 It may be spanned across your table, among Bluetooth enabled devices, Ranging
not more than few meters.
 It may be spanned across a whole building, including intermediate devices to
connect all floors.
 It may be spanned across a whole city.
 It may be spanned across multiple cities or provinces.
 It may be one network covering whole world.

Inter-Connectivity
Components of a network can be connected to each other differently in some fashion.
 Every single device can be connected to every other device on network, making
the network mesh.
 All devices can be connected to a single medium but geographically disconnected,
creating a bus-like structure.
 Each device is connected to its left and right peers only, creating linear structure.
  devices connected together with a single device, creating star-like structure.
 All devices connected arbitrarily using all previous ways to connect each other,
resulting in a hybrid structure.

Administration
From an administrator’s point of view, a network can be private network which belongs
to a single autonomous (self-governing) system and cannot be accessed outside its
physical or logical domain. A network can be public, which is accessed by all.

Network Architecture
Computer networks can be discriminated into various types such as Client-Server, peer-
to-peer or hybrid, depending upon its architecture.
 There can be one or more systems acting as Server. Other being Client, requests the
Server to serve requests. Server takes and processes request on behalf of Clients.
 Two systems can be connected Point-to-Point, or in back-to-back fashion. They both
reside at the same level and called peers.
 There can be hybrid network which involves network architecture of both the above
types.

SAQ 1

a. Define a computer network

………………………………………………………………………………………
…….
………………………………………………………………………………………
……
b. List any four types of computer networks
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
c. List any four classifications of computer networks
....................................................................................................................................
 ....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................

As a future network administrator, you need to have some broad

understanding of what a network is as well as different types of computer networks. In
this unit we have stated that a network is a combination of two or more computers that
are linked together to communicate to each other. Some of the types of computer
networks include LAN,MAN,WAN and the biggest of all Internet.
UNIT 2. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING

On completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1 Define a networking model

2 Explain the layers of both the OSI and TCP/IP model
3 Explain the protocols of each layer of the OSI and TCP/IP model

Introduction

Network engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip level
engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the whole
networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some
particular task and is independent of all other layers. But as a whole, almost all
networking tasks depend on all of these layers. Layers share data between them and they
depend on each other only to take input and send output.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

By now you understand the concept of an internetwork. Now the OSI model will help
you see just how an internetwork operates by using a layered architecture.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) created the OSI model as the
first major attempt to internetwork various vendor-specific networks, the ultimate goal
being that these different vendor networks could work together in harmony. This model
consists of seven layers. Although it is not widely used today, the terminology is
prevalent in the networking community. The OSI model may also be helpful when
troubleshooting a network issue. First of all, it is important to know the name of each
layer and its corresponding layer number. This will help you remember where the layers
reside in the OSI model. You may also hear the layers referred to by number, so knowing
them will also help in that respect. The diagram below provides a list of all seven layers.

The main benefits of the OSI model include the following:

 Helps users understand the big picture of networking
 Helps users understand how hardware and software elements function together
 Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks into manageable pieces
 Helps users understand new technologies as they are developed
 Aids in interpreting vendor explanations of product functionalityThe diagram
below provides a list of all seven layers.
Figure 6.0 Open Systems Interconnections Model

source : www.cisco.com

In general, each layer communicates with the adjacent layers on the OSI model and the
corresponding layer on another system. For example, the Presentation layer
communicates with the Application layer, the Session layer, and also with the
Presentation layer of another connected system.

Application Layer
Layer 7 provides an interface between a host’s communication software and any
necessary external applications (such as email, file transfers, and terminal emulation).
This layer can also evaluate what resources are necessary to communicate between two
devices and determine their availability. Layer 7 also provides the following
functionality:
 Synchronization of client/server applications
 Error control and data integrity between applications
 System-independent processes to a host

Application Protocols Supported by the Application Layer

1. Telnet : A TCP/IP protocol that provides terminal emulation to a remote host by
creating a virtual terminal. Secure CRT is one program that can be installed on a user
 computer to create telnet sessions. This protocol requires authentication via a
username and password.
2. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) : Enables web browsing with the transmission
of Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) documents on the Internet.
3. Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol Enables secure web browsing. A secure
connection is indicated (HTTPS) when the URL begins with https:// or when there is
a lock symbol at the lower-right corner of the web page that is being viewed.
4. Transfer Protocol (FTP) : Enables a user to transfer files. Provides access to files
and directories. Securely implemented with telnet, which allows remote
authentication to an FTP server.
5. Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) : A bare-bones version of FTP that does not
provide access to directories. With TFTP you can just send and receive files. Unlike
FTP, TFTP is not secure and sends smaller blocks of data.
6. Domain Name System (DNS) : Resolves hostnames such as www.cisco.com into IP
addresses.
7. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) : Sends electronic mail across the network.
8. Post Office Protocol 3 (POP3) : Receives electronic mail by accessing an Internet
server.
9. Network File System (NFS) : Enables users with different operating systems (for
example, NT and Unix workstations) to share files.
10. Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) : Offers access to Usenet newsgroup
postings.
11. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) : Monitors the network and
manages configurations. Collects statistics to analyze network performance and
ensure network security.
12. Network Time Protocol (NTP) : Synchronizes clocks on the Internet to provide
accurate local time on the user system.
13. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol(DHCP) : Works dynamically to provide an
IP address, subnet mask, domain name, and a default gateway for routers. Works with
DNS and WINS (used for NetBIOS addressing).

SAQ 1

a. Outline any two benefits of the OSI model

………………………………………………………………………………………
…….
 ………………………………………………………………………………………
……
b. List any three two protocols of the application layer
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….

As a future network administrator, you need to have some broad

understanding of what a networking model is . In this unit we have stated that a
networking model helps you to understand how communication takes place on the
internet. Communication can be easily understood by first understanding different kinds
of protocols on the internet.
UNIT 3. INTRODUCTION TO THE OSI MODEL

On completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1 Define the presentation layer/session/transport/Network/Data link layers

2 Explain the functions of all the layers

Presentation Layer
Layer 6 presents data to the Application layer and acts as a data format translator. Format
translation is necessary to ensure that the data can be read by applications. Layer 6 also
handles the structuring of data and negotiating data transfer syntax to Layer 7. Processes
involved include Translation, data encryption, decryption, compression, and
decompression. Layer 6 protocols include the following:

o Translation: Networks can connect very different types of computers together:

PCs, Macintoshes, UNIX systems, AS/400 servers and mainframes can all exist
on the same network. These systems have many distinct characteristics and
represent data in different ways; they may use different character sets for
example. The presentation layer handles the job of hiding these differences
between machines.

o Compression: Compression (and decompression) may be done at the

presentation layer to improve the throughput of data. (There are some who believe
this is not, strictly speaking, a function of the presentation layer.)

o Encryption: Some types of encryption (and decryption) are performed at the

presentation layer. This ensures the security of the data as it travels down the
protocol stack. For example, one of the most popular encryption schemes that is
usually associated with the presentation layer is the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)
protocol. Not all encryption is done at layer 6, however; some encryption is often
done at lower layers in the protocol stack, in technologies such as IPSec.

 Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)

 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
 Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)
 Graphic Image File (GIF)
  Picture (PICT)
 Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG)
 Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)
 QuickTime
 Rich Text Format (RTF)

Presentation layer implementations are not typically associated with a particular protocol
stack. The standards for video and graphics are examples. Some well-known standards
for video include QuickTime and Motion Picture Experts Group (MPEG). QuickTime is
an Apple Computer specification for video and audio it manages audio and video
applications, and MPEG is a standard for video compression and coding. Among the
well-known graphic image formats are Graphics Interchange Format (GIF), Joint
Photographic Experts Group (JPEG), and Tagged Image File Format (TIFF). GIF and
JPEG are compression and coding standards for graphic images, and TIFF is a standard
coding format for graphic images.

Session Layer
Layer 5 is primarily concerned with dialog control among devices. This layer determines
the beginning, middle, and end of a session or conversation that occurs between
applications. In this way, the Session layer acts as an intermediary for those applications.
Some of the Session layer protocols and their functionality are as follows :

1. Network File System (NFS) : Accesses remote resources transparently and

represents files and
directories as if local to the user system. Developed by SUN and used on Unix
workstations.
2. Structured Query Language (SQL) : Functions as a query language that requests,
updates, and manages databases. Developed by IBM and compatible with XML and
HTML.
3. Remote Procedure Call (RPC) : Basis for client/server communications. Calls are
created on the client and then carried out on the server.
4. AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP) : Also client/server–based communications, but
specific to AppleTalk

Lower Layers
The lower layers of the OSI model focus on data transport, which can be achieved via a
router,
switch, or a physical wire.

4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data Link
1 Physical

Transport Layer
Layer 4 is responsible for end-to-end connections and data delivery between two hosts.
The ability to segment and reassemble data is a key functionality of this layer. For
example, when one system is sending data to another system, that data can be segmented
into smaller data blocks and transmitted across the network. The receiving system can
then reassemble the segmented data blocks at the Transport layer. Transmissions occur
via logical connectivity between the sender and destination. Layer 4 provides transparent
data transfer by hiding details of the transmission from the upper layers.
Layer 4 also provides the following functionality:
 Fault detection
 Error recovery
 Establishing, maintaining, and tearing down virtual circuits
The Transport layer can provide reliable networking via acknowledgments, sequencing,
and flow control.
 Acknowledgments—Delivered segments are acknowledged to the sender. If they are
not acknowledged, the sender will retransmit.
 Sequencing—Data segments are sequenced into their original order when they arrive
at the destination.
 Flow Control—Provides buffer controls that prevent packet flooding to the
destination host. Buffers store bursts of data for processing when the transmission is
complete. Layer 4 protocols include the following:
1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
3. Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX)—A reliable communications protocol created
by
Novell NetWare

Network Layer
Layer 3 is where the best path determination is made for packet delivery across the
network. Routed protocols such as IP are used to determine logical addressing, which can
identify the destination of a packet or datagram. The most common network device found
at the Network layer is a router; however, Layer 3 switches may also be implemented. A
router at the Network layer follows these general steps to ensure proper data transport:
1. The router checks the destination IP address of the incoming packet on the router
interface.
2. Packets destined for that router are processed, whereas packets destined for another
router must be looked up in the routing table.
3. The router determines an exit interface based on the routing table and sends the
packet to the interface for framing and forwarding. If there is no route in the routing
table, the packet is dropped by the router.

Data Link Layer

Layer 2 ensures reliable data transfer from the Network layer to the Physical layer for
transmission across the network. Two domains determine data transport reliability:
 Broadcast Domain—A group of nodes that can receive each other’s broadcast
messages and are segmented by routers.
 Collision Domain—A group of nodes that share the same media and are
segmented by switches. A collision occurs if two nodes attempt a simultaneous
transmission. Carrier Sense Multiple Access Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is
an access method that sends a jam signal to notify the devices that there has been
a collision. The devices then halt transmission for a random back-off time.
Data received from the Network layer is formatted into frames to be transmitted to the
Physical layer. Physical addressing or hardware addressing (rather than logical
addressing) ensures that data is delivered to the appropriate node on the LAN. This layer
is also responsible for error notification (not correction), network topology, and flow
control.
This is the only layer of the OSI model that has sublayers. The two sublayers in question
define the IEEE Ethernet 802.3 frame, which in turn provides physical addressing and
flow control. Also, routed protocol information (IP, IPX, AppleTalk, and so on) is
provided to the upper layers.
The IEEE Ethernet 802.3 sublayers are Media Access Control (MAC) and Logical Link
Control (LLC), and are described in the following sections.

Media Access Control (MAC)

The MAC address is the hard-coded address on the network interface controller (NIC) of
the Physical layer node attached to the network. Although the source address will always
be a unicast or single destination address, the destination address can be a unicast,
multicast (a determined subset of nodes), or broadcast (all nodes in a broadcast domain)
address. Each MAC address must be unique and follow this format:
 It must consist of 48 bits.
 It must be displayed by 12 hexadecimal digits (0-9, A-F).
The first 6 hexadecimal digits in the address are a vendor code or organizationally unique
identifier (OUI) assigned by the NIC manufacturer. This is an example of a MAC
address: 00:00:07:A9:B2:EB

Logical Link Control (LLC)

The LLC sublayer complements the MAC sublayer in the ethernet model; the LLC is
responsible for framing, error, and flow control. Two devices are used at the Data Link
layer:

 Bridges—Bridges connect two segments in a single network or two networks

together. They simply forward data between those segments/networks without
performing an analysis or redirection of the data.
 Switches—At Layer 2, switches are multi-port bridges that utilize Application
Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) to forward frames. Each port of the switch has
a dedicated bandwidth.

OSI Layered Communications

Now that you have reviewed all seven layers of the OSI model, it is a good time to see
how those layers communicate with each other. Each layer passes information to adjacent
layers by using Protocol Data Units (PDUs). The PDU includes both the message and the
protocol/control information from the forwarding layer. That control information can be
in the form of a header or trailer. The process of adding a header or trailer to the PDU at
each layer of the OSI is called encapsulation.
OSI Layer Control Information Name
Layer control information name
Application Data
Presentation
Session
Transport Segment
Network Packet
Data Link Frame
Physical Bit

Based on this chart, you can see how information is encapsulated as it travels down
through the various layers. The correct order for data encapsulation is data, segment,
packet, frame, and bit.

SAQ 1

a. Define the session and transport layer of the OSI model

………………………………………………………………………………………
…….
………………………………………………………………………………………
 ……
b. List any two function of the transport layer
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………….

As a future network administrator, you need to have some broad

understanding of what a network is as well as it advantages and disadvantages. In this
unit we have stated that a network is a combination of two or more computers that are
linked together to communicate to each other. Some of the advantages of the network
include sharing resources, applications and entertainment. On the other hand we have
also stated that the network has some drawbacks which include illegal behaviors and lack
of total security. In the next unit, we shall begin to talk about some of the pieces that
make up a computer network.
UNIT 4. INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP Model

On completion of this unit, you will be able to:

1 Define the TC/IP model

2 Explain any four layers of the TCP/IP model

TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model, also known as the Department of Defence (DoD) model, was created
by the DoD when they developed the TCP/IP protocol suite. Their goal was to provide
reliable networking and data integrity in the event of a disaster. This model is prevalent in
the current networking community.
Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines Internet
Model which contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general communication
model but Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its communication. The internet
is independent of its underlying network architecture so is its Model. This model has the
following layers:
Figure 13. TCP/IP Model

source : www.compteck.com
Essentially the TCP/IP model has many similarities to the OSI model. Table 1.8 lists the
layers of the OSI model in the left column and the related layers of the TCP/IP model in
the right.

Layers of the OSI and TCP/IP Models

OSI Layer TCP/IP Layer
Application Presentation Session Application
Transport Transport
Network Internet
Data Link Network Access
Physical

Application Layer
This layer combines functionalities of the three top layers of the OSI model and may also
be called the Process/Application layer. Also, some of the most popular applications
(email, file transport, and so on) interface with this layer to communicate with other
applications on the network.
If you’ll remember, the description of the Application layer of the OSI model included a
list of application protocols and their primary functions.

Protocols for Each Layer of the TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Layer Protocols
Application Telnet HTTP/HTTPS FTP TFTP DNS SMTP POP3 NFS NNTP
SNMP NTP DHCP
Transport TCP UDP
Internet ICMP ARP RARP IP
Network Interface Ethernet Fast Ethernet Token Ring FDDI

Transport Layer
The Transport layer corresponds with the Transport layer of the OSI model and is also
known as the Host-to-Host layer. Not only is this layer responsible for reliable data
delivery, but it can also make certain that data arrives in the proper order. These protocols
are TCP and UDP. The following sections cover each protocol and its related
applications.

TCP
TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol. TCP uses acknowledgments, sequencing,
and flow control to ensure reliability (please refer back to the “Transport Layer” section
of the OSI model for definitions of these terms). A TCP segment contains fields for the
Sequence, Acknowledgment, and Windowing numbers. These fields help make sure that
datagrams arrive undamaged. This is considered to be reliable delivery. TCP uses
Positive Acknowledgment and Retransmission (PAR):
 The source device begins a timer when a segment is sent and retransmits if the
timer runs out before an acknowledgment is received.
 The source device keeps track of segments that are sent and requires an
acknowledgment for each segment.
 The destination device acknowledges when a segment is received by sending a
packet to the source that iterates the next sequence number it is looking for from
the source.

Table 13.1
Source Port Destination Port
Sequence Number
Acknowledgement Number
Miscellaneous Flags Window (Flow Control)
Checksum Urgent
Options

Flow control via TCP includes windowing. Windowing is a method for traffic congestion
control where a window is determined by the receiving system to limit the number of
data segments (bytes) that can be sent by the source device without an acknowledgment
from the recipient. The size of a window determines the number of unacknowledged data
segments allowed by the receiving system. Window sizes vary and can change
throughout the duration of a connection. Increasing a window size enables more data
segments to be transmitted to the recipient before acknowledgment, whereas decreasing
the window size allows for fewer data segments to be transmitted before an
acknowledgment is sent.
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
When a source device is ready to transmit data, it sets up a Connection-Oriented
Communication session with the intended recipient. This is a call setup or a three-way
handshake. When the data is successfully transmitted, a call termination occurs to
disconnect the virtual circuit.
The three-way handshake includes the following steps:
1. A “connection agreement” segment is sent to the recipient asking to synchronize
systems. This step is associated with the term SYN packet.
2. The second and third segments acknowledge the request to connect and determine
the rules of engagement. Sequencing synchronization is requested of the receiving
 device. A two-way connection is established. This step is associated with the term
SYN-ACK packet.
3. A final segment is sent as an acknowledgement that the rules have been accepted
and a connection has been formed. This step is associated with the term ACK
packet.
Both TCP and UDP use port numbers. Public applications are assigned port numbers
below 256. Numbers 256-1023 are allocated to companies. Numbers above 1023 are
dynamically assigned by an application. Access lists can use port numbers to filter traffic.
Table 1.10 lists applications that use TCP.

Applications Using TCP

Application Port Number(s)
FTP 20, 21
Telnet 23
SMTP 25
DNS (zone transfers) 53
HTTP 80
POP3 110
NNTP 119
HTTPS 443

UDP is the other protocol that is used at the Transport layer of the TCP/IP model.

UDP
UDP is much simpler than TCP because it is a connectionless protocol. UDP headers
contain only the source and destination ports, a length field, and a checksum. Because of
the lack of a sequence, acknowledgment, and windowing field, UDP cannot guarantee
delivery. Because there are no delivery guarantees, UDP is considered unreliable. With
this protocol, it is up to the application to provide reliability.
A UDP segment header is shown below.
Source Port Destination Port
Length Checksum

Applications Using UDP

Application Port Number(s)
DHCP 67, 68
DNS (name resolution) 53
TFTP 69
NTP 123
SNMP 161

Internet Layer
The Internet layer corresponds with the Network layer of the OSI model. The following
protocols relate to the logical transmission of packets:
 IP
 ICMP
 ARP, RARP, and Proxy ARP

IP
IP uses logical or virtual addressing to get a packet from a source to its destination. IP
addresses are used by routers to make forwarding decisions. Some key characteristics of
IP addresses include the following:
1. Addresses are allocated by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).
2. IPv4 IP addresses are 32 bits, divided into four octets (8 bits each). An example
of an
IP address in dotted decimal format would be 172.16.122.204.
3. The minimum value (per octet) is 0 and the maximum value is 255.
4. IPv6, which is the future of IP addresses, is 128 bits.

ICMP
Internet Control Messaging Protocol is used by ping and traceroute utilities. Ping (Packet
Internet Groper) enables you to validate that an IP address exists and can accept requests.
The following transmissions are used by the Ping utility:
1. Ping sends an echo request packet to receive the echo response.
2. Routers send Destination Unreachable messages when they can’t reach the
destination network and they are forced to drop the packet. The router that drops
the packet sends the ICMP DU message.
The following is an example of a successful ping test run from a computer command
prompt:
C:\Documents and Settings>ping 10.0.0.1
Pinging 10.0.0.1 with 32 bytes of data:
Reply from 10.1.1.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=255
Reply from 10.1.1.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=255
Reply from 10.1.1.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=255
Reply from 10.1.1.1: bytes=32 time<1ms TTL=255
Ping statistics for 10.0.0.1:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 4, Lost = 0 (0% loss),
Approximate round trip times in milli-seconds:
Minimum = 0ms, Maximum = 0ms, Average = 0ms
The following is an example of an unsuccessful ping test run from a computer command
prompt:
C:\Documents and Settings>ping 10.0.0.2
Pinging 10.0.0.2 with 32 bytes of data:
Request timed out.
Request timed out.
Request timed out.
Request timed out.
Ping statistics for 10.0.0.2:
Packets: Sent = 4, Received = 0, Lost = 4 (100% loss)

ARP, RARP, and Proxy ARP

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP),
and Proxy Address Resolution Protocol (Proxy ARP) are all protocols used at the TCP/IP
model’s Internet layer. ARP maps a known IP address to a MAC address by sending a
broadcast ARP. When the destination
IP address is on another subnet, the sender broadcasts ARP for the router’s Ethernet port
or default gateway, so the MAC address sent back is that of the router’s ethernet port.

RARP maps a known MAC address to an IP address.

Proxy ARP enables a router to respond to an ARP request that has been sent to a remote
host. Some Unix machines (especially Solaris) rely on Proxy ARP versus default
gateways.

Network Interface Layer

This layer corresponds with the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model. As
mentioned earlier in the chapter, this layer manages hardware addressing and physical
data transfer.

SAQ 1

a. Define the TCP/IP model

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b. List the four layers of the TCP/IP model
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As a future network administrator, you need to have some broad

understanding of what a network is as well as it advantages and disadvantages. In this
unit we have stated that a network is a combination of two or more computers that are
linked together to communicate to each other. Some of the advantages of the network
include sharing resources, applications and entertainment. On the other hand we have
also stated that the network has some drawbacks which include illegal behaviors and lack
of total security. In the next unit, we shall begin to talk about some of the pieces that
make up a computer network.