MAGNETIC FIELD.

Introduction to Magnetic Field

Magnetic field is the area in which the magnet can show its influence. The
magnetic field varies upon the surrounding and types of magnet used.
The magnetic effect of electric current was introduced by Danish Physicist
Christian Oersted in 1820. In his experiment, when current was passed to a wire,
the needle placed near it got deflected. The deflection of the needle was opposite
to the direction of the current. So, he concluded there is certain relationship
between magnetism and electricity. The electric current produces magnetic effect
in the space around the conductor.
Direction of magnetic field: The direction of magnetic field is generally determined
by right hand thumb rule.
Right hand thumb rule:

According to this rule, When, the right hand is held with the thumb, first
finger and second finger mutually perpendicular to each other (at right angles), as
shown in figure, then:
The thumb is pointed in the direction of motion of the conductor.
The first finger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field. (north to south)
The middle finger represents the direction of the induced or generated current
(the direction of the induced current will be the direction of conventional current
(from positive to negative).
The direction of current and magnetic field also can be determined by Maxwell
cork screw rule.

Magnetic field lines and magnetic flux

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The direction of magnetic field lines at any point can be given by the magnetic
needle. Actually, the direction of magnetic field and magnetic field lines are
not in same direction. So, magnetic lines of force are rather called magnetic
field line.

Similar to the electric field we can also define the magnetic flux in magnetic
field.
The magnetic flux at any area can be defined as magnetic field lines crossing

per unit area. It is denoted by

Again magnetic flux passing through any small elementary area is

total flux passing through is

if magnetic field is uniformly distributed then
the unit of B is Tesla (T) and area is m2. The unit of Φ is Tm2. it is also called
Wber, which is named after German physicist Willium Wber.

Now so the magnetic field can be defined as the magnetic flux per
unit area. It is also called magnetic flux density. Its unit is Wbm-2. So, 1T = 1
Wbm-2

Force on moving charge on a magnetic field (Lorentz Force)

Consider a charged particle or charge =q is moving with velocity v on a
magnetic field B can experience magnetic force FM. If the direction of magnetic
field is represented by Y-axis, velocity of charged particle is along XY plane
making angle θ with direction of magnetic field (B), then the direction of

magnetic force is represented by Z-axis.

Experimentally it is found that magnitude of magnetic force is
directly proportional to the magnitude of the charge i.e.

directly proportional to the velocity of the

charge i.e. directly proportional to the

strength of magnetic field i.e. directly
proportional to the sine of angle between v and B i.e

Now from above equations, we get

This is the expression for Lorentz magnetic force where FM is perpendicular to

the plane of v and B.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

If we stretch fore finger, middle finger and thumb of left hand to make them
perpendicular to each other, then if the fore finger shows the direction of
magnetic field, middle finger shows the direction of motion of positive charge or
current, the thumb shows the direction of force experienced by the charge or the
conductor.
Note: If the angle between the ‘B’ and direction of motion of charge is less than
90°, then Fleming’s left hand rule can be applied. The direction of Lorentz force
can also be applied by the right hand rule
Force Experienced by a Current Carrying Conductor in a Uniform Magnetic Field

Fig. Force on the conductor

A conductor consists of large no. of free electrons. Current on the conductor
means drifting of such a free electron in any fixed direction due to the motion
of such a free electron each electron experience magnetic force and hence
conductor itself experience magnetic force. So, when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a uniform magnetic field it experience force.

Consider a conductor having length l, cross-section area A in a uniform

magnetic field. If n be the number of electrons per unit volume (electron
density), vd be the drift velocity of electron having electronic charge e then the

current on the conductor is Due to the

motion of electron on magnetic field, each electron experience Lorent’s

magnetic force.
Total number of current on the conductor is

Total force experienced by the conductor is

So the force experienced by the conductor is perpendicular to the plane

containing l and B.

Special Case:
we have

Case-I:
if θ = 90°

when the current carrying conductor is placed perpendicular to the magnetic

field, magnetic field produces maximum force on the conductor.
Case-II:
if θ = 0° or 180°

when the current carrying conductor is placed parallel or anti parallel with
magnetic field then magnetic field produces no force on the conductor.

Torque on rectangular coil in a magnetic field

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As the current carrying conductor experiences a force when placed in a
magnetic field, each side of a current carrying rectangular coil experiences a
force in a magnetic field. In the present section we shall see in what way the
rectangular loop carrying current is influenced by a magnetic field.

Consider a rectangular coil of length l and breadth b carrying a current I

placed in a uniform magnetic field B. θ be the angle between plane of
rectangular coil and magnetic field. The magnitude of experienced by each
side of loop is given below.

• Force acting on side PQ (F1):

 the direction of force is perpendicular to the plane containing PQ and B.
It is directed outward direction as shown in figure.

• Force acting on side QR (F2):

the direction of force is perpendicular to the plane containing QR and B.

It is directed downward direction as shown in figure.

• Force acting on side RS (F3):

the direction of force is perpendicular to the plane containing RS and B.

It is directed inward direction as shown in figure.

• Force acting on side SP (F4):

the direction of force is perpendicular to the plane containing SP and B.

It is directed upward direction as shown in figure.

As the force acting on the upper and lower sides are equal and opposite along
the same line of action, they cancel each other. As the force acting on the
sides QR and SP are equal and opposite along different lines of action they
constitute a couple. Hence the rectangular coil experiences a torque.

Therefore the magnitude of torque acting on the coil is

If the rectangular coil having N number of turns then torque is given by

Thus the torque acting on a coil in a magnetic field

depends on the number of turns, area of current loop, strength of current and
magnetic field.

Moving coil Galvanometer

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It is a device that is used to measure and detect the small amount of electric
charge i.e electric current. It is the most sensitive device and used in many
electrical instruments. It is the major basic component of Ammeter and
Voltmeter.

Principle:
Moving coil galvanometer is based on the fact that when a current-carrying
rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field it experiences torque.

Construction:
Construction of the galvanometer is as shown in the figure. In the
galvanometer, it consists of rectangular coil PQRS having N number of an
insulated copper coil which is wounded in the nonmagnetic metallic frame of
soft iron as a center core. The coil is suspended by a phosphor-bronze strip
through a torsion head to that it is free to rotate about the vertical axis. The
coil is placed in between two pieces of magnet. The other end of the coil is
connected to the light spring and finally, to the terminal T2 The torsion head is
connected to the terminal T1. A concave mirror m is placed to the suspension
strip to note the deflection of the coil using a lamp and scale arrangement.

Theory:
When a current I flows through the rectangular coil, the coil gets deflected, the
suspension wire is twisted and rotating torque is developed on it. If k is
rotating torque per unit angle per unit twist of the strip then restoring torque

through the angle θ is if A be the area of the

rectangular strip, N be the number of turns, I be the current through the coil
and B be the magnetic field then the torque on the rectangular coil is
since the rectangular coil is placed in between two
concave-shaped magnets then the field lines are radial to the area of the
rectangular field. so the area of the rectangular foil is parallel to the magnetic
field lines then,

At equilibrium, So the deflection of

the galvanometer is directly proportional to the current on the rectangular coil.
Hence we use a linear scale in the galvanometer.
Biot and Savart law
Biot and Savart law gives the quantitative measurement of magnetic field due to a
current carrying conductor.
Let us consider a conductor XY flowing current I through it. Since, the current is
flowing through the conductor, magnetic field is produced at point P. Let dl be the
small element of which make angle with the line joining P as shown in figure. The
distance from dl to P is supposed to be r.

Fig. Biot savart law

The Biot-Savart Law relates magnetic fields to the currents which are their
sources. In a similar manner, Coulomb’s law relates electric fields to the point
charges which are their sources. Finding the magnetic field resulting from a
current distribution involves the vector product, and is inherently a calculus
problem when the distance from the current to the field point is continuously
changing.

Consider a conductor through which a current I flows and let small elemental
length dl at a source point. We want to calculate magnetic field at a point
which is distance r from source point. θ be the angle between r and dl. Then
from biot-savart law the magnetic field due to current carrying conductor is
directly proportional to the magnitude of current

directly proportional to the length of element dl

directly proportional to the sine of angle between r and dl

inversely proportional to the square of the distance between source point and
field point
Now from above equations we get,

Hence total magnetic field due to current carrying conductor is

Magnetic Field at the Centre of a Circular Coil

Biot and Savart’s law can be used to find the magnetic field at the centre of a
circular coil.
Let us consider a circular coil of radius ‘r’ is carrying current ‘I’ as shown in
figure. Let XY=dl be the small element of the conductor. Let the element makes an
angle θ = 90º with r.
Now, from Biot and Savart law, magnetic field at the centre of coil due to the
element XY is given by:

Now, the total magnetic field due to the coil can be calculated by integrating from
zero to 2 π. So,

If there are ‘N’ turns of coil, then:

Here the direction is B is towards the plane of the coil.

Magnetic Field on the Axis of the Current Carrying Circular Coil
We can calculate magnetic field on the axis of the current carrying circular coil.
Suppose a circular coil of radius ‘a’ is carrying current ‘I’ as shown in figure. Take a
point ‘P’ on the axis of coil at which the magnetic field is to be determined. Let XY
is equal to X’ Y’= dl be the small element of the conductor at the opposite end of
diameter as shown in figure.

Let dB and dB’ be the magnetic field due the element XY and X’ Y’ at point P
Now, from Biot and Savart law,
Magnetic field at P due the element XY and X’ Y’ is:

Here, = 10-7wbm-1A-1 called the permeability of air.

Resolving the component of dB and dB’ we get, as shown in figure. Here, dBcosθ
and DB’cosθ are equal, opposite and acting at a point. Thus they cancel each other.
Thus the total magnetic field due to the coil is sum of dBsinθ. We can calculate the
magnetic field by integrating from 0 to 2 πa. Now,
If there are ‘N’ turns of coil, then:

When point P is at the Centre of the coil, then x =0, so:

When P is very far away from the Centre of the coil, then x is very greater than a,
so:

Here, the magnetic field is along the axis of the coil.

Magnetic Field due to Straight Current carrying Conductor.

Consider an infinitely long conductor AB through which current I flows. Let P be

any point at a distance a from the centre of conductor. Consider dl be the small
current carrying element at point c at a distance r from point p. α be the angle
between r and dl. l be the distance between centre of the coil and elementary
length dl.
From biot-savart law, magnetic field due to current carrying element dl at point P .
from above three equations ,
Total magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor is
This is the final expression for total magnetic field due to straight current carrying
conductor.
If the conductor having infinite length then,

Magnetic field along axis of solenoid

A solenoid is a ling cylindrical coil having number of circular turns. Consider a
solenoid having radius R consists of n number of turns per unit length. Let P
be the point at a distance x̥ from the origin of the solenoid where we have to
calculate the magnitude of the magnetic field. The current carrying element dx
at a distance x from origin and a distance r from point P

The magnetic field due to current carrying circular coil at any axis is

from figure we have

Now from above three equations, we get,

Now total magnetic field can be obtained by integrating from Φ1 to Φ2, we get

Hence this expression gives the magnetic field at point p of the solenoid of

finite length. For infinite long solenoid

so,
Magnetic field due to toroid
A toroid is a long solenoid which is bend into circular form. So, toroid is
equivalent to the solenoid having infinite length but it has finite no. of circular
turns. Consider a toroid having radius r, carrying current I through it. If N is the
number of turns in toroid and n be the no. of turns per unit length then

again magnetic field due to infinite solenoid is

then the magnetic field due to toroid is

Ampere’s Law
Ampere’s law is equivalent to the Gauss law in electrostatics which measures
the tangential component of magnetic field over any closed surface. Ampere’s
law is alternative method of Biot and Savart law to measure magnetic field
due to current carrying conductor.

Ampere’s Law can be defined as the line integral of magnetic field due to any
close surface area is equal to
 Mathematically,

Proof of Ampere’s Law

Consider a straight conductor carrying current I is as shown in figure. Let P be the point at a distance r
from conductor where we have to draw a concentric circle of radius r. The direction of magnetic field at
pint P is given by the tangent of the circle. Where the direction of B and dl is along the same direction
and angle between them is 0°. We know the magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor is
Magnetic field of current carrying conductor

Consider a straight conductor carrying current I is as shown in figure. Let P be the point at a distance r
from conductor where we have to draw a concentric circle of radius r. The direction of magnetic field at
pint P is given by the tangent of the circle. Where the direction of B and dl is along the same direction
and angle between them is 0°.

From Ampere’s Law we know the magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor is

This is the magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor.

Magnetic field due to solenoid

Consider a long
solenoid having n number of turns per unit length and carrying current I is as
shown in figure. The magnetic field outside the solenoid is almost zero but the
magnetic field inside the solenoid is uniform which is directed along the axis of
the solenoid. Consider a closed loop PQRSP having length PQ= RS = x. If dl
be the small line element the direction of B is along dl. So the angle between
solenoid and PQ is 0°. If N be the no. of turns in the closed loop PQRSP then

Let I’ be the current enclosed by closed loop then

Now from Ampere’s Law

and
Magnetic field due to toroid carrying current
Toroid is an endless solenoid in the form of a ring.
We consider a toroid with the n number of turns per unit length with current I
flowing through it. Due to the current, a magnetic field is set up inside the toroid.
The magnetic lines of force inside the toroid are concentric circles. From
symmetry, the magnetic field at all points inside the toroid equidistant from the
centre O is the same. Consider a point X located at a distance ‘a’ from O, inside the
turns of the toroid at which magnetic field induction is to be found.

Magnetic field due to a toroid carrying current

According to Ampere’s circuital law,

Now,
Total current passing through the circle of radius ‘a’ = Number of turns per unit
length in the solenoid I

So,
or
The magnetic field inside a toroid remains constant for given current. The field is
always tangential to the circular closed path.
Helmholtz’s Coil

Consider a circular current carrying coil carrying current I. The magnetic field
at any axis at a distance x from the centre of the coil is

From equation-(i) it is seen that the magnetic field varies whith varying a
distance from centre to at any point along the axis. It is seen that from above
graph the magnetic field due to single circular current carrying coil cannot be
uniform.

Helmholtz found that when two identical co-axial circular current carrying coil
carrying current in same direction are placed at a distance which is equal to
the radius of the coil, the magnetic field due to coil is uniform. It is due to
magnetic field of one coil balanced by the magnetic field of other coil. i.e. if the
magnetic field of one coil is decreased then the magnetic field of other coil is
increased and the net magnetic field remains constant.
Magnitude of B:

The magnetic field due to circular current carrying coil having n number of
circular turns carrying current I at a distance x from the centre of the coil is

The rate of increasing or

decreasing of magnetic field is given by differentiating b with respect to

x, we get

Since the magnetic field is uniform then dB/dx is constant.

Now
The magnitude of magnetic field is maximum in midway of the space between
two current carrying coil.

We know that
Total magnetic field is