Digital Signal Processing is an important branch of Electronics and

Telecommunication engineering that deals with the improvisation of reliability

and accuracy of the digital communication by employing multiple techniques.

Anything that carries information can be called as signal.

The process of operation in which the characteristics of a

signal Amplitude,shape,phase,frequency,etc.
Amplitude,shape,phase,frequency,etc. 

undergoes a change is known as signal processing.

processing, signals can be classified into various categories details of which

are discussed below.

Continuous Time Signals

Continuous-time signals are defined along a continuum of time and are thus,
represented by a continuous independent variable. Continuous-time signals
are often referred to as analog signals.
This type of signal shows continuity both in amplitude and time. These will
have values at each instant of time. Sine and cosine functions are the best
example of Continuous time signal.

The signal shown above is an example of continuous time signal because we

can get value of signal at each instant of time.

Discrete Time signals

The signals, which are defined at discrete times are known as discrete
signals. Therefore, every independent variable has distinct value. Thus, they
are represented as sequence of numbers.
Although speech and video signals have the privilege to be represented in
both continuous and discrete time format; under certain circumstances, they
are identical. Amplitudes also show discrete characteristics. Perfect example
of this is a digital signal; whose amplitude and time both are discrete.

The figure above depicts a discrete signal’s discrete amplitude characteristic

over a period of time. Mathematically, these types of signals can be
formularized as;

x={x[n]},−∞<n<∞x={x[n]},−∞<n<∞
Where, n is an integer.
It is a sequence of numbers x, where n th number in the sequence is
represented as x[n].

Unit Impulse or Delta Function

A signal, which satisfies the condition, δ(t)=limϵ→∞x(t)δ(t)=limϵ→∞x(t) is
known as unit impulse signal. This signal tends to infinity when t = 0 and
tends to zero when t ≠ 0 such that the area under its curve is always equals
to one. The delta function has zero amplitude everywhere excunit_impulse.
at t = 0.

Properties of Unit Impulse Signal

 δtt is an even signal.

 δtt is an example of neither energy nor power NENP signal.



Unit Step Signal

A signal, which satisfies the following two conditions −

 U(t)=1(whent≥0)andU(t)=1(whent≥0)and
 U(t)=0(whent<0)U(t)=0(whent<0)
is known as a unit step signal.
It has the property of showing discontinuity at t = 0. At the point of
discontinuity, the signal value is given by the average of signal value. This
signal has been taken just before and after the point of discontinuity
according to Gibb′s Phenomena

If we add a step signal to another step signal that is time scaled, then the
result will be unity. It is a power type signal and the value of power is 0.5. The
RMS Root mean square value is 0.707 and its average value is also 0.5
Ramp Signal
Integration of step signal results in a Ramp signal. It is represented by r tt.
Ramp signal also satisfies the condition 
r(t)=∫t−∞U(t)dt
=tU(t)r(t)=∫−∞tU(t)dt=tU(t).
It is neither energy nor power NENP type signal.

Parabolic Signal
Integration of Ramp signal leads to parabolic signal. It is represented by p tt.
Parabolic signal also satisfies he condition p(t)=∫t−∞r(t)dt

=(t2/2)U(t)p(t)
=∫−∞tr(t)dt=(t2/2)U(t) .
It is neither energy nor Power NENP type signal.

Sign Function
This function is represented as

sgn(t)={1−1fort>0fort<0sgn(t)={1fort>0−1fort<0

It is a power type signal. Its power value and RMS Rootmeansquare values,

both are 1. Average value of sign function is zero.
Sinc Function
It is also a function of sine and is written as −

SinC(t)=SinΠtΠT=Sa(Πt)SinC(t)=SinΠtΠT=Sa(Πt)

Properties of Sinc function


It is an energy type signal.



Sinc(0)=limt→0sinΠtΠt=1Sinc(0)=limt→0sin⁡ΠtΠt=1




Sinusoidal Signal
A signal, which is continuous in nature is known as continuous signal.
General format of a sinusoidal signal is

x(t)=Asin(ωt+ϕ)x(t)=Asin⁡(ωt+ϕ)
Here,
A = amplitude of the signal
ω = Angular frequency of the signal Measu redin radians
φ = Phase angle of the signal Measuredinradians
The tendency of this signal is to repeat itself after certain period of time, thus
is called periodic signal. The time period of signal is given as;

T=2πωT=2πω
The diagrammatic view of sinusoidal signal is shown below.

Rectangular Function
A signal is said to be rectangular function type if it satisfies the following
condition −

π(tτ)={1,0,fort≤τ2Otherwiseπ(tτ)={1,fort≤τ20,Otherwise

Being symmetrical about Y-axis, this signal is termed as even signal.

Triangular Pulse Signal

Any signal, which satisfies the following condition, is known as triangular
signal.

Δ(tτ)={1−(2|t|τ)0for|t|<τ2for|t|>τ2Δ(tτ)={1−(2|t|τ)for|t|<τ20for|t|>τ2
This signal is symmetrical about Y-axis. Hence, it is also termed as even
signal.

Basic DT signals

Unit Impulse Sequence

It is denoted as δnn in discrete time domain and can be defined as;

δ(n)={1,0,forn=0Otherwiseδ(n)={1,forn=00,Otherwise

Unit Step Signal

Discrete time unit step signal is defined as;

U(n)={1,0,forn≥0forn<0U(n)={1,forn≥00,forn<0

The figure above shows the graphical representation of a discrete step

function.

Unit Ramp Function

A discrete unit ramp function can be defined as −

r(n)={n,0,forn≥0forn<0r(n)={n,forn≥00,forn<0
The figure given above shows the graphical representation of a discrete ramp
signal.

Parabolic Function
Discrete unit parabolic function is denoted as p nn and can be defined as;

p(n)={n22,0,forn≥0forn<0p(n)={n22,forn≥00,forn<0

In terms of unit step function it can be written as;

P(n)=n22U(n)P(n)=n22U(n)

The figure given above shows the graphical representation of a parabolic

sequence.

Sinusoidal Signal
All continuous-time signals are periodic. The discrete-time sinusoidal
sequences may or may not be periodic. They depend on the value of ω. For
a discrete time signal to be periodic, the angular frequency ω must be a
rational multiple of 2π.
A discrete sinusoidal signal is shown in the figure above.
Discrete form of a sinusoidal signal can be represented in the format −

x(n)=Asin(ωn+ϕ)x(n)=Asin⁡(ωn+ϕ)
Here A,ω and φ have their usual meaning and n is the integer. Time period of
the discrete sinusoidal signal is given by −

N=2πmωN=2πmω
Where, N and m are integers.

Classification of CT signals

Even and Odd Signals

Even Signal

A signal is said to be even if it satisfies the following condition;

x(−t)=x(t)x(−t)=x(t)
Time reversal of the signal does not imply any change on amplitude here. For
example, consider the triangular wave shown below.

The triangular signal is an even signal. Since, it is symmetrical about Y-axis.

We can say it is mirror image about Y-axis.
Consider another signal as shown in the figure below.
We can see that the above signal is even as it is symmetrical about Y-axis.

Odd Signal

A signal is said to be odd, if it satisfies the following condition

x(−t)=−x(t)x(−t)=−x(t)
Here, both the time reversal and amplitude change takes place
simultaneously.

In the figure above, we can see a step signal x tt. To test whether it is an odd
signal or not, first we do the time reversal i.e. x −t−t and the result is as
shown in the figure. Then we reverse the amplitude of the resultant signal i.e.
–x−t−t and we get the result as shown in figure.
If we compare the first and the third waveform, we can see that they are
same, i.e. xtt= -x−t−t, which satisfies our criteria. Therefore, the above signal
is an Odd signal.
Some important results related to even and odd signals are given below.

 Even × Even = Even

 Odd × Odd = Even
 Even × Odd = Odd
 Even ± Even = Even
 Odd ± Odd = Odd
 Even ± Odd = Neither even nor odd

Representation of any signal into even or odd form

Some signals cannot be directly classified into even or odd type. These are
represented as a combination of both even and odd signal.

x(t)→xe(t)+x0(t)x(t)→xe(t)+x0(t)
Where xett represents the even signal and xott represents the odd signal

xe(t)=[x(t)+x(−t)]2xe(t)=[x(t)+x(−t)]2
And

x0(t)=[x(t)−x(−t)]2x0(t)=[x(t)−x(−t)]2
Example

Find the even and odd parts of the signal x(n)=t+t2+t3x(n)=t+t2+t3

Solution − From reversing xnn, we get

x(−n)=−t+t2−t3x(−n)=−t+t2−t3
Now, according to formula, the even part

xe(t)=x(t)+x(−t)2xe(t)=x(t)+x(−t)2
=[(t+t2+t3)+(−t+t2−t3)]2=[(t+t2+t3)+(−t+t2−t3)]2
=t2=t2
Similarly, according to formula the odd part is

x0(t)=[x(t)−x(−t)]2x0(t)=[x(t)−x(−t)]2
=[(t+t2+t3)−(−t+t2−t3)]2=[(t+t2+t3)−(−t+t2−t3)]2
=t+t3=t+t3

Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

Periodic Signals

Periodic signal repeats itself after certain interval of time. We can show this in
equation form as −

x(t)=x(t)±nTx(t)=x(t)±nT
Where, n = an integer 1,2,3……1,2,3……
T = Fundamental time period FTPFTP ≠ 0 and ≠∞
Fundamental time period FTPFTP is the smallest positive and fixed value of
time for which signal is periodic.

A triangular signal is shown in the figure above of amplitude A. Here, the

signal is repeating after every 1 sec. Therefore, we can say that the signal is
periodic and its FTP is 1 sec.
Non-Periodic Signal

Simply, we can say, the signals, which are not periodic are non-periodic in
nature. As obvious, these signals will not repeat themselves after any interval
time.
Non-periodic signals do not follow a certain format; therefore, no particular
mathematical equation can describe them.

Energy and Power Signals

A signal is said to be an Energy signal, if and only if, the total energy
contained is finite and nonzero 0<E<∞0<E<∞. Therefore, for any energy
type signal, the total normalized signal is finite and non-zero.
A sinusoidal AC current signal is a perfect example of Energy type signal
because it is in positive half cycle in one case and then is negative in the next
half cycle. Therefore, its average power becomes zero.
A lossless capacitor is also a perfect example of Energy type signal because
when it is connected to a source it charges up to its optimum level and when
the source is removed, it dissipates that equal amount of energy through a
load and makes its average power to zero.

For any finite signal xtt the energy can be symbolized as E and is written as;

E=∫+∞−∞x2(t)dtE=∫−∞+∞x2(t)dt

Spectral density of energy type signals gives the amount of energy

distributed at various frequency levels.

Power type Signals

A signal is said to be power type signal, if and only if, normalized average
power is finite and non-zero i.e. 0<p<∞0<p<∞. For power type signal,
normalized average power is finite and non-zero. Almost all the periodic
signals are power signals and their average power is finite and non-zero.
In mathematical form, the power of a signal xtt can be written as;

P=limT→∞1/T∫+T/2−T/2x2(t)dtP=limT→∞1/T∫−T/2+T/2x2(t)dt
Difference between Energy and Power Signals

The following table summarizes the differences of Energy and Power

Signals.

Power signal Energy Signal

Practical periodic signals are power signals. Non-periodic signals are

energy signals.

Here, Normalized average power is finite and non-zero. Here, total normalized energy
is finite and non-zero.

Mathematically, Mathematically,

P=limT→∞1/T∫+T/2−T/2x2(t)dtP=limT→∞1/T∫−T/2+T/2x E=∫+∞−∞x2(t)dtE=∫−∞+∞x

2(t)dt 2(t)dt

Existence of these signals is infinite over time. These signals exist for limited
period of time.

Energy of power signal is infinite over infinite time. Power of the energy signal is
zero over infinite time.

Solved Examples
Example Find the Power of a signal z(t)=2cos(3Πt+30o)
1 −
+4sin(3Π+30o)z(t)=2cos⁡(3Πt+30o)+4sin⁡(3Π+30o)
Solution − The above two signals are orthogonal to each other because their
frequency terms are identical to each other also they have same phase
difference. So, total power will be the summation of individual powers.
Let z(t)=x(t)+y(t)z(t)=x(t)+y(t)
Where x(t)=2cos(3Πt+30o)x(t)=2cos⁡(3Πt+30o) and y(t)=4sin(3Π+30o)y
(t)=4sin⁡(3Π+30o)
Power of x(t)=222=2x(t)=222=2
Power of y(t)=422=8y(t)=422=8
Therefore, P(z)=p(x)+p(y)=2+8=10P(z)=p(x)+p(y)=2+8=10…Ans.
Example 2 − Test whether the signal given x(t)=t2+jsintx(t)=t2+jsin⁡t is
conjugate or not?
Solution − Here, the real part being t 2 is even and odd
part imaginaryimaginary being sintsin⁡t is odd. So the above signal is
Conjugate signal.
Example 3 − Verify whether X(t)=sinωtX(t)=sin⁡ωt is an odd signal or an
even signal.
Solution − Given X(t)=sinωtX(t)=sin⁡ωt
By time reversal, we will get sin(−ωt)sin⁡(−ωt)
But we know that sin(−ϕ)=−sinϕsin⁡(−ϕ)=−sin⁡ϕ.
Therefore,

sin(−ωt)=−sinωtsin⁡(−ωt)=−sin⁡ωt
This is satisfying the condition for a signal to be odd. Therefore, sinωtsin⁡ωt is
an odd signal.

Even and Odd Signals

Even Signal

A signal is said to be even or symmetric if it satisfies the following condition;

x(−n)=x(n)x(−n)=x(n)

Here, we can see that x−1−1 = x11, x−2−2 = x22 and x−n−n = xnn. Thus,
it is an even signal.

Odd Signal

A signal is said to be odd if it satisfies the following condition;

x(−n)=−x(n)x(−n)=−x(n)
From the figure, we can see that x11 = -x−1−1, x22 = -x22 and xnn =
-x−n−n. Hence, it is an odd as well as anti-symmetric signal.

Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

A discrete time signal is periodic if and only if, it satisfies the following
condition −

x(n+N)=x(n)x(n+N)=x(n)
Here, xnn signal repeats itself after N period. This can be best understood by
considering a cosine signal −

x(n)=Acos(2πf0n+θ)x(n)=Acos⁡(2πf0n+θ)
x(n+N)=Acos(2πf0(n+N)
+θ)=Acos(2πf0n+2πf0N+θ)x(n+N)=Acos⁡(2πf0(n+N)
+θ)=Acos⁡(2πf0n+2πf0N+θ)

=Acos(2πf0n+2πf0N+θ)=Acos⁡(2πf0n+2πf0N+θ)
For the signal to become periodic, following condition should be satisfied;

x(n+N)=x(n)x(n+N)=x(n)
⇒Acos(2πf0n+2πf0N+θ)=Acos(2πf0n+θ)⇒Acos⁡(2πf0n+2πf0N+θ)=Acos⁡(
2πf0n+θ)

i.e. 2πf0N2πf0N is an integral multiple of 2π2π

2πf0N=2πK2πf0N=2πK
⇒N=Kf0⇒N=Kf0
Frequencies of discrete sinusoidal signals are separated by integral multiple
of 2π2π.

Energy and Power Signals

Energy Signal

Energy of a discrete time signal is denoted as E. Mathematically, it can be

written as;

E=∑n=−∞+∞|x(n)|2E=∑n=−∞+∞|x(n)|2

If each individual values of x(n)x(n) are squared and added, we get the

energy signal. Here x(n)x(n) is the energy signal and its energy is finite over
time i.e 0<E<∞0<E<∞

Power Signal

Average power of a discrete signal is represented as P. Mathematically, this

can be written as;

P=limN→∞12N+1∑n=−N+N|x(n)|2P=limN→∞12N+1∑n=−N+N|x(n)|2

Here, power is finite i.e. 0<P<∞. However, there are some signals, which
belong to neither energy nor power type signal.

Definition of Discrete time LTI systems

A discrete time LTI system is one which deals with
Discrete time signals and satisfies both the
principles of linearity and time invariance. The
principles of linearity and time invariance for a
discrete time system can be stated as follows

Principle of Linearity
Consider a linear system S characterized by the
transformation operator T[]. Let x1, x2 are the inputs
applied to it and y1, y2 are the outputs. For a system
to be linear it has to satisfy both the principles of
homogeneity and superposition. The following
equations hold for a linear system
      y1 = T[x1(n)], y2 = T[x2(n)]        
Digital signal processing techniques are increasingly replacing conventional analog
signal processing methods in many fields such as:

1. Speech analysis and processing

2. Radar and sonar signal processing
3. Biomedical signal analysis and processing
4. Telecommunications
5. Geophysical signal processing
6. Dual tone multi frequency signal detection
7. Trans-multiplexers

Memory is stored in the discrete form, if we store them in continuous time form we
have to store infinite samples of information which is not possible.

AM signals are transmitted after sampling these are also discrete time signal

Speech signal or music which we hear from any device is a discrete time signal.