University of Jordan

Electrical Engineering Department

EE 429
Communications Lab

EXPERIMENT 2
AM TRANSMISSION

Lab Supervisor: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

Dr. Raad Zoobi
Lab Engineer: Eng. Reem Al-Debs

Prepared By: Dr. Mohammed Hawa

 EXPERIMENT 2
AM TRANSMISSION
OBJECTIVE

When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to describe the generation of
amplitude-modulated (AM) signals and explain how the message signal affects the shape of
the AM signal. You will also be able to calculate the modulation index, and describe 100%
modulation, under-modulation, over-modulation, and transmission efficiency.

DISCUSSION

There are many different ways to produce an AM signal, but all of them must allow the
amplitude variations of the message signal to be impressed onto the carrier signal. As shown
in Figure 2-4, a balanced modulator integrated circuit (IC) can function as the amplitude
modulator. The message and carrier signals are inputs to the amplitude modulator.

The balanced modulator is an IC that is designated as MC1496 (Figure 1-30). There are six
MC1496 ICs used on the ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board. Each IC consists of
eight NPN transistors (Q1 to Q8) as Figure 1-30 shows. These transistors are configured as dual
differential amplifiers and a constant current source. The upper four transistors are a cross-
coupled, dual-differential amplifier. The lower two transistors are a differential amplifier that
drive the upper amplifier. The bottom two transistors and associated bias circuitry form a
constant current source for the lower differential amplifier.

There are two inputs to the balanced modulator: a carrier signal input and a message
(modulating) signal input. There are also two outputs: The positive output at pin 6, and the
negative output at pin 12. Usually, the pin 12 output connects to the circuits following the
balanced modulator.

A null potentiometer is provided in the message signal input to adjust the base voltages at Q5
and Q6. This potentiometer adjusts the amount of modulation at the output and permits the
same IC to be used as an AM modulator (with the carrier frequency present) or as a DSB
modulator (with the carrier frequency suppressed).

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The input carrier signal is usually set to a high amplitude to drive amplifiers Q1-Q2 and Q3-Q4
into saturation so that they operate in a switching mode. The input message signal to the lower
differential amplifier is set to a low amplitude so that the amplifier operates in a linear mode.

The output is the full-wave multiplication of the input signals. For sine wave signal inputs
and suppressed carrier operation, the balanced modulator's output voltage (Vo) may be
expressed by the simplified expression shown below. The expression shows that Vo contains
the sum frequency of the inputs and the difference frequency of the inputs.

Vo = K × Vm cos(ω m t + φm ) × Vc cos(ω c t + φc )
= K × Vm × Vc × { cos((ω c + ω m ) t + P ) + cos((ω c − ω m ) t + P ) }

When input signals have equal frequencies but are out of phase, the output difference
component is a dc voltage that varies with the cosine of the phase difference.

When the balanced modulator functions as an amplitude modulator, you adjust the amount of
modulation with the null potentiometer in the message signal input circuit. You can also adjust
the null potentiometer to suppress the carrier frequency to output a DSB signal.

The balanced modulator can also be used as a mixer that combines two frequencies to obtain a
higher or lower frequency. When a mixer is balanced to suppress the carrier signal, the sum
and difference frequencies are present in the output. A filter at the output of the mixer can
remove either sideband to obtain a higher or lower frequency.

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Increasing or decreasing the amplitude of the message signal causes higher and lower peaks
and valleys in the envelope of the AM signal. Figure 2-5 illustrates this concept.

The modulation index (m) is a parameter that quantifies the peaks and valleys in the AM
signal. The modulation index is the ratio of the message signal m(t) peak amplitude to the
carrier signal peak amplitude, i.e., m = −m(t) / carrier peak. With reference to Figure 2-8, the
calculation method for determining the modulation index (m) from the AM signal is shown
below.

message peak ( A − B ) 2 A − B
m= = =
carrier peak (A + B) 2 A + B

For example, if A equals 4 V and B equals 1 V, the modulation index (m) is 0.6.

As the modulation index is increased, the power level of the sidebands (PSB) increases while
the carrier power (PC) remains constant. Because useful information contained in the AM
signal is located in the sidebands, maximizing the sideband power by increasing the
modulation index is desirable. However, in AM, the modulation index must not be greater
than 1, or distortion and interference will occur.

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The AM waveform shown in Figure 2-12 is 100% modulated (modulation index equals 1.0).
You can see that the valleys touch the zero reference line. 100% modulation is desirable in AM
communications for maximum sideband power.

When over-modulation occurs (modulation index m > 1), both sides of the modulation
envelope cross over the zero reference line, as Figure 2-13 shows. In AM communications, over
modulation causes fake sideband frequencies called sideband splatter. This splatter causes
distortions in the receiver and interference with other radio stations.

The total power (PT) in an AM signal is the sum of the carrier power (PC) and the sideband
power (PSB)
PT = PC + PSB

Transmission efficiency (µ) is the fraction of total power that is contained in the sidebands:

PSB
µ=
PT
If the total power is 100 kW and the transmission efficiency is 0.242, the sideband power is
PSB = µ × PT = 24.2 kW.

Transmission efficiency is also related to the modulation index by the following equation:

m2
µ=
2 + m2

which applies for the case of tone modulation (i.e., when the modulating signal is a sinusoidal
signal). For example, when the modulation index (m) is 0.8, the transmission efficiency (µ) is
0.242.

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Refer to Figure 2-18 that shows a full AM transmitter. The RF power amplifier is the stage after
the modulator and before the transmitting antenna. It provides the power amplification
necessary for the antenna to radiate the RF signals over long distances.

Figure 2-19 shows a schematic of the amplifier section in the AM/SSB TRANSMITTER circuit
block in your kit. This section consists of an RF POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1) and an ANTENNA
MATCHING NETWORK.

The RF POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1) is a common emitter amplifier. Q1 is always forward biased
because of the constant Q1 dc base voltage. Consequently, Q1 operates as a class A amplifier.
The Q1 collector circuit contains coil L1. Because the dc voltage drop across L1 is very small,
the dc collector voltage essentially equals VCC (15.0 Vdc). The Q1 emitter resistors, R4 and R6,
provide dc bias stability. The emitter circuit has a bypass capacitor (C3) that connects R4 (10Ω)
to ground to provide a high amplifier gain for ac signals. R2 and R3 function as a voltage
divider to provide a constant dc base voltage of about 4.8 Vdc for the amplifier. Capacitor C1
isolates the dc base voltage from R1.

The ANTENNA MATCHING NETWORK connects to the Q1 collector through dc isolation

capacitor C2. The antenna matching network (a π-network made up of reactive components
L2, C4, C5, and L3) has an impedance equal to the RF POWER AMPLIFIER output impedance,
which is equal to 330Ω. The ANTENNA MATCHING NETWORK helps transfer maximum
power to the low-impedance antenna (simulated by the resistance R5 = 51Ω).

NOTE: To get the maximum output power, the antenna impedance should match that of the
RF amplifier.

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In this experiment, you will make the power measurements with only the carrier signal,
which is a sine wave, because the AM signal is a complex waveform and power calculations
are difficult in such case with just oscilloscope measurements.

NOTE: To make power and current calculations you will need to convert your pk-pk voltage
measurements from the oscilloscope to rms values by multiplying the pk-pk values by
1 2 2 = 0.3535 .

Refer to Figure 2-23 as necessary. The input power to the Q1 circuit is the product of the input
current (Ii) and voltage (Vi). You calculate input current (Ii) from the voltage drop across R1
(6.8 kΩ), and you measure the input voltage (Vi) at the base of Q1. To get the input power,
multiply the input current by the input voltage:

Pi = Ii x Vi

The Q1 output power (Po) is the Q1 collector output voltage (Vo) squared and divided by the
load impedance (330Ω):
Po = Vo2/330

The Q1 power gain (Ap) is the output power (Po) divided by the input power (Pi).

Ap = Po / Pi

Power levels in communication systems are usually expressed in terms of decibels related to a
reference power level. A commonly used reference is 1 milliwatt (mW), which results in the
unit dBm. The following equation relates dBm to power (P) in watts:

dBm = 10 x log10 (P / 1 mW )

A dBm is an actual amount of power, whereas a dB represents a ratio of power. The use of
dBm is convenient when dealing with a number of stages. The difference between the dBm
level at the stage output and stage input is the power gain in dB.

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PROCEDURE A - AM SIGNALS
In this PROCEDURE section, you will observe the effect of the message signal on the AM
signal.

1. Locate the AM/SSB TRANSMITTER and VCO-LO circuit blocks on the ANALOG
COMMUNICATIONS circuit board, and connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-6. Be sure to
place a two-post connector in the 1000 kHz position on the VCO-LO circuit block. Set switches
S1, S2, and S3 to OFF.

Note: The ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS circuit board contains three switches S1, S2 and S3:
• S1: Automatically balances the MODULATOR in the AM/SSB TRANSMITTER circuit. In
other words, the modulator starts generating a DSB-SC signal instead of a DSB-LC signal
• S2: Automatically balances the MIXER in the AM/SSB TRANSMITTER circuit.
• S3: Automatically adjusts the capacitor value in the ANTENNA MATCHING CIRCUIT so
that maximum power is transferred to the ANTENNA.

2. Connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to the message signal input (M) of the
MODULATOR. Set channel 1 to 50 mV/DIV and set the sweep to 250 µs/DIV. Set the trigger
source to CH1. While observing the signal on channel 1, adjust the function generator for a
400 mVpk-pk, 2 kHz sine wave signal at M (Note: You can pull the amplitude knob or press
the Attenuation (ATT -20dB) button if you cannot reach 200 mVpk-pk).

3. Connect the channel 2 probe to the carrier signal input (C) of the MODULATOR. Set
channel 2 to 50 mV/DIV and set the sweep now to 0.5 µs/DIV. Set the trigger source to CH2.
While observing the signal on channel 2, adjust VCO-LO for a 300 mVpk-pk, 1000 kHz signal.
You can adjust the carrier frequency with the NEGATIVE SUPPLY knob on the base unit, and
you can adjust the carrier amplitude with the potentiometer knob on the VCO-LO circuit
block.

NOTE: You have to be aware of the circuit loading effect. This is why you must do your
measurements only after you have completed connecting the above circuit. For example, if you
adjust VCO-LO level to around 550 mVpk-pk before you connect it to the modulator input, the
VCO-LO voltage will drop to around 300 mVpk-pk once you connect it to the modulator.

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4. Now, connect channel 2 probe to the output of the MODULATOR. Make sure that both
signals (channel 1 and channel 2) are displayed on the oscilloscope simultaneously. You can
press the colored CH1 or CH2 buttons (in the Vertical system controls) to display a signal if it
is not already shown on the screen. Trigger on channel 1 (i.e., the message signal).

5. Set channel 2 to 1 V/DIV and set the time scale to 100 µs/DIV. Adjust the MODULATOR
potentiometer knob so that the AM waveform on oscilloscope channel 2 has 2.0 V between the
upper and lower peaks, as shown in Figure 2-7.

6. Does the AM signal envelope (channel 2) have the same shape and frequency as the message
signal?
....................................................................................

7. You have set the carrier signal frequency (fc) to 1000 kHz and the message signal frequency
(fm) to 2 kHz. Sketch the frequency spectrum of the resulting AM signal?

....................................................................................

8. Change the function generator signal from a sine wave to a square wave. Did the envelope
of the AM output signal change from a sine wave to a square wave or not?

....................................................................................

9. Set the function generator signal back to a sine wave. While observing the AM output signal
on channel 2, vary the function generator's FREQUENCY control knob to vary the message
signal frequency. Did the frequency of the AM signal envelope change to correspond to the
frequency of the message signal or not?

....................................................................................

10. Readjust the message signal frequency to 2 kHz. While observing the AM output signal,
vary the amplitude of the message signal by varying the function generator's amplitude knob.
Did the amplitude of the AM signal envelope change to correspond to the amplitude of the
message signal or not?

....................................................................................

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PROCEDURE B - MODULATION INDEX

In this PROCEDURE section, you will make oscilloscope measurements of AM signals and
calculate the modulation index (m).

1. Make sure that switches S1, S2 and S3 are OFF.

2. On oscilloscope channel 1, adjust the peak-to-peak voltage of the message signal to

400 mVpk-pk. If necessary, adjust the MODULATOR potentiometer knob so that the AM
waveform shown on channel 2 has 2.0 V between the upper and lower peaks. The 2.0 V is
measurement A in Figure 2-8 (see the DISCUSSION section).

3. On oscilloscope channel 2, measure (in volts) the vertical height between the upper and
lower valleys of the modulated waveform (measurement B in Figure 2-8).

....................................................................................

4. Calculate the modulation index (m).

....................................................................................

5. Is this signal under-modulated or over-modulated?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE C - 100% MODULATION AND TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY

In this PROCEDURE section, you will observe 100% modulation, observe over modulation,
and calculate transmission efficiency (µ).

1. Make sure that switches S1, S2, and S3 are OFF. Channel 2 is showing the AM signal (see
Figure 2-14).

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2. While observing the AM signal on channel 2, increase the amplitude of the message signal
until the AM signal envelope waveform touches the zero reference line, as shown in
Figure 2-11. The distance represented by B on the AM signal waveform is now 0.0 V.

3. On oscilloscope channel 2, measure (in volts) the vertical distance between the upper and
lower peaks of the modulated waveform (measurement A in Figure 2-11).

....................................................................................

4. Calculate the modulation index (m).

....................................................................................

5. Calculate the transmission efficiency (µ) in the case of 100% modulation.

....................................................................................

6. In the case of m = 1, if the total power in the AM signal (PT) is 50 kW, calculate the sideband
power (PSB) by using your calculated value of transmission efficiency µ.

....................................................................................

7. Now increase the message signal amplitude on channel 1 by adjusting the LEVEL knob on
the function generator until the AM signal appears as shown in Figure 2-15. Is this AM signal
under-modulated or over-modulated?

....................................................................................

2-11
8. Is the modulation index of the AM signal greater than or less than 1?

....................................................................................

9. Is an over-modulated signal desirable in AM communications? and why?

....................................................................................

PROCEDURE D - RF POWER AMPLIFIER AND POWER GAIN

In this PROCEDURE section, you will study the RF power amplifier and measure the input
power, output power, and power gain.

29. Set S1 and S2 OFF. Set S3 ON which will automatically adjust the variable capacitor C4 so
that the ANTENNA MATCHING NETWORK impedance is 330 Ω at 1 MHz frequency.

30. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 2-24(a). The circuit schematic is also shown in Figure
2-24(b). Connect the output of VCO-LO to the carrier input (C) of the MODULATOR. Also
connect the oscilloscope channel 1 probe to the carrier signal input (C), and trigger on CH1.

31. While observing the signal on channel 1, adjust the VCO-LO output for a
300 mVpk-pk, 1 MHz signal.

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32. Connect the function generator (Figure 2-25) and the oscilloscope channel 2 probe to the
MODULATOR message signal input (M). Trigger on CH2.

33. While observing the signal on channel 2, adjust the function generator for a 400 mVpk-pk,
2 kHz sine wave signal at the message input of the MODULATOR.

34. Connect the channel 1 oscilloscope probe to the output of the MODULATOR. Make sure
that both signals (channel 1 and channel 2) are displayed on the oscilloscope simultaneously.
You can press the colored CH1 or CH2 buttons (in the Vertical system controls) to display a
signal if it is not already shown on the screen. Trigger on channel 2 (the message signal). Set
channel 2 to 500 mV/DIV. Adjust the MODULATOR potentiometer knob so that the AM
waveform is 100% modulated.

35. Now DISCONNECT the function generator from the MODULATOR message signal input
(M) so that you only have the carrier signal.

36. Measure the voltage drop across R1 by first measuring the voltage at the input of R1 and
the voltage at the output of R1 (use the oscilloscope, not the multimeter) then subtract these
two values to get VR1. What is VR1(pk-pk)?
....................................................................................

37. Convert VR1(pk-pk) value that you calculated in step 36 to an rms value.
(VR1(rms) = VR1(pk-pk) x 0.3535)

....................................................................................

38. Calculate the current (IR1(rms)) in resistor R1 (6.8 kΩ), which is also the current to the RF
POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1).
IR1(rms) = VR1(rms) /6.8 kΩ
....................................................................................

39. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage (VQ1(pk-pk)) at the input to the RF POWER AMPLIFIER
(Q1).
....................................................................................

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40. Convert VQ1(pk-pk) value that you measured in step 39 to an rms value (VQ1(irms) = VQ1(pk-pk) x
0.3535). Use your result and the IR1(rms) value you calculated in step 38 to calculate the rms
input power (PQ1(i)) to the RF POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1).
PQ1(i) = VQ1(irms) x IR1(rms)

....................................................................................

41. Connect the oscilloscope channel 2 probe to the input of the ANTENNA MATCHING
NETWORK (RF POWER AMPLIFIER output). On channel 2, measure the peak-to-peak voltage
at the RF POWER MPLIFIER output (VQ1(opk-pk))

....................................................................................

42. Convert the VQ1(opk-pk) value that you measured earlier to an rms value, and use your result
to calculate the RF POWER AMPLIFIER output power (PQ1(o)):

PQ1(o) = VQ1(orms) 2/330

....................................................................................

43. Calculate the power gain (Ap) of the RF POWER AMPLIFIER (Q1).

Ap = PQ1(o) /PQ1(i)

....................................................................................

44. Now convert the input power to the RF POWER AMPLIFIER into dBm.
dBmi = 10 x log10 (PQ1(i) / 1 mW )

....................................................................................

45. Also convert the output power from the RF POWER AMPLIFIER into dBm.
dBmo = 10 x log10 (PQ1(o) / 1 mW)

....................................................................................

46. From the input and output power in dBms, calculate the power gain of the RF stage in dB.

ApdB = dBmo − dBmi

....................................................................................

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