Mathematical Induction

Michael Levin
Computer Science Department, Higher School of Economics
Mathematical Induction
• A very powerful proof
method

wikipedia.org
Mathematical Induction
• A very powerful proof
method
• Falling dominos

wikipedia.org
Mathematical Induction
• A very powerful proof
method
• Falling dominos
• Check for
1, 2, 5, 100, 1000
dominos

wikipedia.org
Mathematical Induction
• A very powerful proof
method
• Falling dominos
• Check for
1, 2, 5, 100, 1000
dominos
• How to prove for any
number of dominos? wikipedia.org
Mathematical Induction
• A very powerful proof
method
• Falling dominos
• Check for
1, 2, 5, 100, 1000
dominos
• How to prove for any
number of dominos? wikipedia.org
• Many computer science
algorithms are proven
using induction
Outline
Lines and Triangles
Connecting Points
Sums of Numbers
Bernoulli’s Inequality
Coins
Cutting a Triangle
Flawed Induction Proofs
Alternating Sum
Problem
Several straight lines (at least three) cut a plane
into pieces. Each line intersects with every other
line, and all the intersection points are different.
Prove that there is at least one triangular piece.
Problem
Several straight lines (at least three) cut a plane
into pieces. Each line intersects with every other
line, and all the intersection points are different.
Prove that there is at least one triangular piece.
Problem
Several straight lines (at least three) cut a plane
into pieces. Each line intersects with every other
line, and all the intersection points are different.
Prove that there is at least one triangular piece.
Proof Idea

• A triangle appears as soon as there are 3 lines

Proof Idea

• A triangle appears as soon as there are 3 lines

• When we add more lines one by one, each
time
Proof Idea

• A triangle appears as soon as there are 3 lines

• When we add more lines one by one, each
time
• Either the same triangle remains...
Proof Idea

• A triangle appears as soon as there are 3 lines

• When we add more lines one by one, each
time
• Either the same triangle remains...
• Or a new one appears
Three Lines
Three Lines
Three Lines - Bad Case
Three Lines - Bad Case
Adding One More Line

There is a triangle cut by three lines

Adding One More Line

There is a triangle cut by three lines

Adding One More Line

When the new line intersects the triangle,…

Adding One More Line

When the new line intersects the triangle,… a new

triangle appears
Adding One More Line

When the new line intersects the triangle,… a new

triangle appears
And One More Line

When the new line doesn’t touch the triangle, the

triangle remains intact
General Case
Adding a Line in General

There is a triangle
Adding a Line in General

There is a triangle
Adding a Line in General

New triangle appears

Adding a Line in General

There is a triangle
Adding a Line in General

The triangle remains

Mathematical Induction

Theorem
For any 𝑛 ≥ 3 and any 𝑛 straight lines on a plane, if
every two lines intersect, and all the intersection
points are different, there is a triangular piece
among the pieces into which these lines cut the
plane.
Proof Structure

Number of lines
3 4 5 6 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of lines
3 4 5 6 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of lines
3 4 5 6 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of lines
3 4 5 6 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of lines
3 4 5 6 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of lines
3 4 5 6 𝑛

𝑘 𝑘+1
Proof Structure

Number of lines
3 4 5 6 𝑛

𝑘 𝑘+1
Mathematical Induction
• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 3, three lines
Mathematical Induction
• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 3, three lines
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 3, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 4
Mathematical Induction
• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 3, three lines
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 3, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 4
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 4, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 5
Mathematical Induction
• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 3, three lines
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 3, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 4
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 4, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 5
• ...
Mathematical Induction
• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 3, three lines
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 3, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 4
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 4, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 5
• ...
• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more line in the general case
Mathematical Induction
• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 3, three lines
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 3, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 4
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 4, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 5
• ...
• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more line in the general case
• ...
Mathematical Induction
• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 3, three lines
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 3, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 4
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 4, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 5
• ...
• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more line in the general case
• ...
• Profit!
Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 3, three lines

• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more line in the general case
• ...
• Profit!
Outline
Lines and Triangles
Connecting Points
Sums of Numbers
Bernoulli’s Inequality
Coins
Cutting a Triangle
Flawed Induction Proofs
Alternating Sum
Problem
Connect some of these 10 points with segments,
such that every point is connected with 5 other
points.
Solution
Separate the points into the left half and the right
half. Each half has 5 points.
Solution
Connect each point from the left half to each point
of the right half.
Solution
Connect each point from the left half to each point
of the right half.
Problem
Now you are given 9 points. Can you connect
some of them with segments so that each point is
connected with 5 other points?
Even and Odd Numbers

Numbers 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, … are called even, and

numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … are called odd.
Even numbers are divisible by 2, and odd numbers
are not divisible by 2.
Neighbors

Let us call point 𝐵 neighbor of point 𝐴 if 𝐴 and 𝐵

are connected with a segment.
If 𝐵 is a neighbor of 𝐴, then 𝐴 is also a neighbor of
𝐵.

𝐴 𝐵
Even and Odd Points
Let us call a point even if it has even number of
neighbors, otherwise we call this point odd.

𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Even and Odd Points
Let us call a point even if it has even number of
neighbors, otherwise we call this point odd.
In the example below, points 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 are
odd, and all the other points are even.
𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Even Number of Odd Points

Theorem
The number of odd points is always even, regardless
of how many points and segments are there and
which pairs of points are connected by segments.
Proof Idea

When there are no segments, there are no odd

points, so the number of odd points is indeed even.
Proof Idea

When there are no segments, there are no odd

points, so the number of odd points is indeed even.
When we add segments one by one, the number of
odd points either doesn’t change, increases by 2 or
decreases by 2. Thus the number of odd points
stays even.
Easy Case: No Segments
When there are no segments, each point has 0
neighbors, so there are no odd points. The number
of odd points is 0, which is even, so there is indeed
even number of odd points.
Adding a Segment

Segment 𝐴𝐵 adds two odd points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Number of odd points: 0
Adding a Segment

Segment 𝐴𝐵 adds two odd points 𝐴 and 𝐵.

𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Number of odd points: 2
Adding a Segment

Segment 𝐻𝐼 adds two odd points 𝐻 and 𝐼.

𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Number of odd points: 2
Adding a Segment

Segment 𝐻𝐼 adds two odd points 𝐻 and 𝐼.

𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Number of odd points: 4
Adding a Segment

Segment 𝐵𝐶 makes 𝐵 even and 𝐶 odd.

𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Number of odd points: 4
Adding a Segment

Segment 𝐵𝐶 makes 𝐵 even and 𝐶 odd.

𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Number of odd points: 4
Adding a Segment

Segment 𝐴𝐶 makes 𝐴 and 𝐶 even.

𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Number of odd points: 4
Adding a Segment

Segment 𝐴𝐶 makes 𝐴 and 𝐶 even.

𝐴
𝐼
𝐵
𝐻
𝐶
𝐺
𝐷
𝐹
𝐸
Number of odd points: 2
Adding a Segment in General

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are even, segment 𝐴𝐵 makes them both

odd and adds 2 odd points.

𝐴 𝐵
Adding a Segment in General

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are even, segment 𝐴𝐵 makes them both

odd and adds 2 odd points.

𝐴 𝐵
Adding a Segment in General

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are odd, segment 𝐴𝐵 makes them both

even and removes 2 odd points.

𝐴 𝐵
Adding a Segment in General

If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are odd, segment 𝐴𝐵 makes them both

even and removes 2 odd points.

𝐴 𝐵
Adding a Segment in General

If 𝐴 is even and 𝐵 is odd, segment 𝐴𝐵 swaps them,

keeping number of odd points the same.

𝐴 𝐵
Adding a Segment in General

If 𝐴 is even and 𝐵 is odd, segment 𝐴𝐵 swaps them,

keeping number of odd points the same.

𝐴 𝐵
Proof Structure

Number of segments

0 1 2 3 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of segments

0 1 2 3 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of segments

0 1 2 3 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of segments

0 1 2 3 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of segments

0 1 2 3 𝑛
Proof Structure

Number of segments

0 1 2 3 𝑛

𝑘 𝑘+1
Proof Structure

Number of segments

0 1 2 3 𝑛

𝑘 𝑘+1
Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 0, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 1
Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 0, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 1
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 1, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 2
Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 0, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 1
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 1, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 2
• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more segment in the general case
Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 0, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 1
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 1, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 2
• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more segment in the general case
• ...
Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 0, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 1
• Prove that if theorem is true for 𝑛 = 1, then it
is true for 𝑛 = 2
• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more segment in the general case
• ...
• Profit!
Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more segment in the general case
Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more segment in the general case
• ...
Mathematical Induction

• Prove induction base — 𝑛 = 0, no segments

• Prove induction step from 𝑛 to 𝑛 + 1 —
adding one more segment in the general case
• ...
• Profit!
9 Points — Solution

There are 9 points, and we want to draw some

segments, so that every point has 5 neighbors. If
we succeeded, all 9 points would be odd. But the
number of odd points must be even, and 9 is not
even. So, it is impossible!
Outline
Lines and Triangles
Connecting Points
Sums of Numbers
Bernoulli’s Inequality
Coins
Cutting a Triangle
Flawed Induction Proofs
Alternating Sum
The Prince of Mathematicians

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855)

wikipedia.org
Gauss Teacher’s Problem

Problem
What is the sum of numbers from 1 to 100?
General Case

Problem
What is the sum of integer numbers from 1 to 𝑛?

Theorem
The sum of integers from 1 to 𝑛 is 𝑛(𝑛+1)
2 .
Proof by Induction

Induction base: 𝑛 = 1

1⋅2
1+2+⋯+𝑛=1=
2
Induction step: 𝑛 → 𝑛 + 1
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
!
1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛 + (𝑛 + 1) = + (𝑛 + 1) =
2
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) + 2(𝑛 + 1) (𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
= =
2 2
How to come up with this formula in the first place?
Gauss’s Idea

𝑆=1 +2 + … +99 + 100

𝑆 = 100 +99 + … +2 + 1
2𝑆 = 101 +101 + … +101 + 101
100 ⋅ 101
𝑆= = 5050
2

If we changed 100 to 𝑛 here, it would be another

way to prove the same formula, without induction.
Outline
Lines and Triangles
Connecting Points
Sums of Numbers
Bernoulli’s Inequality
Coins
Cutting a Triangle
Flawed Induction Proofs
Alternating Sum
Problem
You start with $1 000 and earn 2% of what you
have every day. Will you ever get more than
$1 000 000?
On day 1, you have $1 000
On day 2, you have $1 000 ⋅ 1.02
On day 3, you have
$1 000 ⋅ 1.02 ⋅ 1.02 = $1 000 ⋅ 1.022
…
On day 𝑛, you have $1 000 ⋅ 1.02𝑛−1
Mathematical Statement

Problem
Is there such 𝑛 that 1000 ⋅ 1.02𝑛 > 1000000? Or, is
there such 𝑛 that 1.02𝑛 > 1000?
Bernoulli’s Inequality

Theorem
For any 𝑛 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 > 0, (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≥ 1 + 𝑛𝑥.
Proof by Induction
Induction base: 𝑛 = 0

(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = (1 + 𝑥)0 = 1 = 1 + 0𝑥 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥
Proof by Induction
Induction base: 𝑛 = 0

(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = (1 + 𝑥)0 = 1 = 1 + 0𝑥 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥

Induction step: 𝑛 → 𝑛 + 1

!
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛+1 = (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 (1 + 𝑥) ≥ (1 + 𝑛𝑥)(1 + 𝑥) =
= 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑛𝑥2 > 1 + (𝑛 + 1)𝑥
Solution

𝑛 = 50000

1.0250000 = (1 + 0.02)50000 ≥ 1 + 50000 ⋅ 0.02 =

= 1 + 1000 > 1000
Complex Percentage

In fact, 1.02349 = 1003.36730 … > 1000

Complex Percentage

In fact, 1.02349 = 1003.36730 … > 1000

If you have $1 000 on January 1st and increase it by
2% every day, you will get more than $1 000 000 by
the end of the year!
Outline
Lines and Triangles
Connecting Points
Sums of Numbers
Bernoulli’s Inequality
Coins
Cutting a Triangle
Flawed Induction Proofs
Alternating Sum
Problem
You have an unlimited supply of 4 cents and 5
cents coins. Prove that for any 𝑛 ≥ 12, you can
give change of 𝑛 cents using these coins.
Proof by Induction

Induction base: 𝑛 = 12
Indeed, 12 = 3 ⋅ 4, so using just 4 cents coins is
enough.
Proof by Induction

Induction base: 𝑛 = 12
Indeed, 12 = 3 ⋅ 4, so using just 4 cents coins is
enough.

Induction step: 𝑛 → 𝑛 + 1
Proof by Induction

Induction base: 𝑛 = 12
Indeed, 12 = 3 ⋅ 4, so using just 4 cents coins is
enough.

Induction step: 𝑛 → 𝑛 + 1
???
It is unclear how to prove that we can give change
of 𝑛 + 1 cents assuming that we can give change of
𝑛 and we have more 4 cents and 5 cents coins.
Complete Induction

Induction base: 𝑛 = 12, 𝑛 = 13, 𝑛 = 14 and 𝑛 = 15

12 = 3 ⋅ 4
13 = 2 ⋅ 4 + 1 ⋅ 5
14 = 2 ⋅ 5 + 1 ⋅ 4
15 = 3 ⋅ 5
Complete Induction

Induction step: 𝑛, 𝑛 − 1, 𝑛 − 2, 𝑛 − 3 → 𝑛 + 1
If we know that 𝑛 − 3 can be given with 4 cents and
5 cents coins 𝑛 − 3 = 𝑎 ⋅ 4 + 𝑏 ⋅ 5, then 𝑛 + 1 also
can be given with these coins:

𝑛 + 1 = (𝑛 − 3) + 4 = 𝑎 ⋅ 4 + 𝑏 ⋅ 5 + 4 =
= (𝑎 + 1) ⋅ 4 + 𝑏 ⋅ 5
Proof Structure

Change amount

12 13 14 15 𝑛
Proof Structure

Change amount

12 13 14 15 𝑛
Proof Structure

Change amount

12 13 14 15 𝑛
Proof Structure

Change amount

12 13 14 15 𝑛
Proof Structure

Change amount

12 13 14 15 𝑛
Proof Structure

Change amount

12 13 14 15 𝑛

𝑘, 𝑘 − 1, 𝑘 − 2, 𝑘 − 3 𝑘+1
Proof Structure

Change amount

12 13 14 15 𝑛

15, 14, 13, 12 16

Proof Structure

Change amount

12 13 14 15 𝑛

16, 15, 14, 13 17

Proof Structure

Change amount

12 13 14 15 𝑛

𝑘, 𝑘 − 1, 𝑘 − 2, 𝑘 − 3 𝑘+1
Complete Induction

Induction base: prove for the first 𝑘 values of 𝑛

Induction step: if the statement is true for
𝑛, 𝑛 − 1, 𝑛 − 2, … , 𝑛 − 𝑘 + 1, prove it for 𝑛 + 1.
Complete Induction 2

Induction base: prove for the first 𝑘 values of 𝑛

Induction step: if the statement is true for all
previous 𝑛, prove it for 𝑛 + 1.
If we explicitly assume in the induction step, for
example, that the statement is true for 𝑛 − 10, then
we need 𝑘 ≥ 10.
Outline
Lines and Triangles
Connecting Points
Sums of Numbers
Bernoulli’s Inequality
Coins
Cutting a Triangle
Flawed Induction Proofs
Alternating Sum
Acute and Obtuse Triangles

Obtuse triangle
𝐶

𝐴 𝐵
Acute triangle
𝐹

𝐷 𝐸
Problem
Is it possible to cut an obtuse triangle into several
acute triangles?
Theorem
If an obtuse triangle is cut into 𝑛 ≥ 1 triangular
pieces, at least one of the pieces is obtuse.

This sounds very similar to the problem about

cutting a plane by lines. Let us try to prove it in a
similar way using Mathematical Induction.
Proof by Induction

Induction base: 𝑛 = 1. The initial triangle is obtuse,

so if there is only one piece, it is also obtuse.

𝐴 𝐵
Proof by Induction

Induction step: 𝑛 → 𝑛 + 1.
By assumption of induction, there is an obtuse
piece. If we cut it into two triangles, at least one of
them is obtuse, so an obtuse piece remains.

𝐶 𝐺
𝐻
𝐴 𝐵 𝐸 𝐹
𝐷
This Proof is Wrong

Can you spot what was wrong in this proof?

Example
Wrong Induction Step

The induction step assumed that if we cut a

triangle into several triangular pieces, we can do it
by several steps of cutting a triangular piece into
two triangles. However, this is not always possible.
Outline
Lines and Triangles
Connecting Points
Sums of Numbers
Bernoulli’s Inequality
Coins
Cutting a Triangle
Flawed Induction Proofs
Alternating Sum
Flawed Proofs by Induction

• Induction is a very powerful method

• But as any power, you should apply it with care
• We will see that often proofs by induction only
seem to be correct
Theorem
For any 𝑛 ≥ 1 people, they are all of the same age.
Proof by Induction

Induction base: 𝑛 = 1
Obviously, the statement is true for just one person.
Induction step: 𝑛 → 𝑛 + 1
By the assumption of induction, the first 𝑛 people
are of the same age. Also, by the same assumption,
the last 𝑛 people are of the same age. Then all
𝑛 + 1 people are of the same age as the middle
𝑛 − 1 people.
Can you spot what was wrong in this proof?
The induction step breaks for 𝑛 = 1 → 𝑛 + 1 = 2:
indeed, among 𝑛 + 1 = 2 people, the first 𝑛 = 1 is
of the same age, and the last 𝑛 = 1 is of the same
age, but these two people can be of different ages,
because the middle 𝑛 − 1 people are actually 0
people.
Theorem
For any integer 𝑛 ≥ 0, 5𝑛 = 0.
Proof by Induction

Induction base: 𝑛 = 0
Indeed, 5𝑛 = 5 ⋅ 0 = 0
Induction step: 𝑛 → 𝑛 + 1
Write 𝑛 + 1 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 where 𝑖 and 𝑗 are non-negative
integers up to 𝑛. Then
5(𝑛 + 1) = 5(𝑖 + 𝑗) = 5𝑖 + 5𝑗 = 0 + 0 = 0.
Can you spot what was wrong in this proof?
The induction step is wrong for
𝑛 = 0 → 𝑛 + 1 = 1. Indeed, it is impossible to
write 𝑛 + 1 = 1 as a sum 𝑖 + 𝑗 of two non-negative
integers up to 𝑛 = 0, because then both 𝑖 and 𝑗
would have to be 0, and 0 + 0 = 0 < 1.
Outline
Lines and Triangles
Connecting Points
Sums of Numbers
Bernoulli’s Inequality
Coins
Cutting a Triangle
Flawed Induction Proofs
Alternating Sum
Problem
Prove that
1 1 1 1 1
1− + − +⋯+ − =
2 3 4 99 100
1 1 1
= + +⋯+
51 52 100
Generalization

Let’s solve a more general problem:

Problem
Prove that
1 1 1
1− +⋯+ − =
2 2𝑘 − 1 2𝑘
1 1 1
= + +⋯+
𝑘+1 𝑘+2 2𝑘

For 𝑘 = 50, it is the same as the initial problem.

Proof by Induction

Induction base: 𝑘 = 1
1 1
1− =
2 2
Proof by Induction

Induction step: 𝑘 → 𝑘 + 1
Let’s see what changes in the left and the right part
when 𝑘 increases by one.
Two new summands are added in the left part
1 1
when 𝑘 increases by one: 2𝑘+1 − 2(𝑘+1)
Proof by Induction

Right part:
1 1 1 1 1
+ +⋯+ + + =
𝑘+2 𝑘+3 2𝑘 2𝑘 + 1 2(𝑘 + 1)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= (− + )+ + +⋯+ + + =
𝑘+1 𝑘+1 𝑘+2 𝑘+3 2𝑘 2𝑘 + 1 2(𝑘 + 1)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( + + +⋯+ )+ + −
𝑘+1 𝑘+2 𝑘+3 2𝑘 2𝑘 + 1 2(𝑘 + 1) 𝑘 + 1
1 1 1 1 1
So, right part changes by 2𝑘+1 + 2(𝑘+1) − 𝑘+1 = 2𝑘+1 − 2(𝑘+1) , and
the left part changes by the same amount. Thus, left part and right part
are the same initially, and they change by the same value, so they stay the
same.
Conclusion

• Mathematical Induction is a powerful proof

method
• Reformulate problem in mathematical terms
• Prove induction base
• Prove induction step
• Before induction, we often need to come up
with a formula somehow
• Sometimes, generalization is needed before
induction