Redefining the Kilogram

Abstract: ​The need for standardized units has long since been regarded as paramount for
communication in science. Two individuals using different units of measurement cannot
accurately translate them into one another without referring to an actual object to compare it
with. Currently, the International Prototype Kilogram (IPK) acts as this object, a
platinum-iridium alloy sitting in a vault in Paris that acts as the definition of a kilogram and a
standard unit of mass. Now, however, various efforts are being made by the international
scientific community to redefine the kilogram using universal, unchanging constants of nature.
This paper discusses 2 different approaches: The International Avogadro Project and the Watt
Balance.

1. Introduction
At the time of the French Revolution, a commission of scientists including Chevalier de Borda,
Pierre Laplace and Gaspard Monge were put to the task of creating a standard of length. To
create a standard that was measurable yet universal, they chose the quarter meridian that runs
through Paris - that is to say, the line from the North Pole to the equator that intersects Paris. And
on 26 March, 1791, the metre (though it was yet to be called that) was defined by the French
Academy of Sciences as one ten millionth of a quarter meridian that passed through Paris.1
Using this definition, a separate commission of scientists including famous chemist Antoine
Lavoisier defined the base unit of mass. By 1799, the grave was defined as the mass of 1 cubic
decimeter of water at the melting temperature of ice. Essentially, a litre of ice-water.
This was the very first step towards a system of standardized units, and it laid the backbone for
all future efforts. To cement this definition, a platinum-iridium rod was manufactured in 1799,
and that was defined to be the meter.
Further efforts towards a common system of units were materialized with the Metre Convention
of 1857, and the creation of the ​Bureau international des poids et mesures ​(BIPM)​, or the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures, along with it.2 A century more and the 14th
General Conference on Weights and Measures decided upon the 7 base units in the ​Systeme
International d'Unites, ​or SI units.3 (See Appendix 1 for a table of the units and their definitions)
While initially the metre may have been defined as the length of a physical object, it is now
defined based on a universal constant: the speed of light. This is due to environmental factors
that affect and change the physical objects used as standards, which subsequently renders the

1
"History of measurement – from metre to ... - French metrology."
http://www.french-metrology.com/en/history/history-mesurement.asp​. Accessed 10 Nov. 2017.
2
"Convention du Mètre et Règlement Annexe / Metre Convention ... - BIPM."
https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/documents/official/metre-convention.pdf​. Accessed 10 Nov. 2017.
3
"BIPM - Resolutions of the 24th CGPM." ​https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/24​. Accessed 10 Nov.
2017.
1
very definitions they were supposed to standardized useless. The International Prototype
Kilogram (IPK), for example, and its 40 “replicas” - they are obviously not completely identical)
have been measured relative to another on at least 2 different occasions, and their masses have
drifted apart from each other by up to 50μg, as shown in Figure 1.1.

Fig 1.1 A graph of diverging masses of standard

kilogram weights around the world

Though scientists still remain unsure as to what exactly causes this divergence, there is no doubt
that it is an issue. Thus arises the fundamental problem with the dependency of units on material,
changeable items: a constant that changes is meaningless. The kilogram remains the only unit
still defined by means of a physical object.

2. Redefinition of the Meter

The meter provides a good example for how a unit is redefined from an object to a constant. As
stated before, 1799 marked the date of a platinum-iridium rod becoming the definition of a
meter. However, the 17th Conference of General Weights and Measures in 1983 marked the shift
of the definition from a material object to the speed of light. The meter was hence defined as “the
length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a
second.”5 (From 1960 to 1983 the definition was based on a separate constant - based on
electron transition between orbitals of a krypton atom). It is important here to note the process
through which this was achieved. First, the existing standard - the rod - was measured as close as
possible in relation to the speed of light. Then, the unit from the physical standard was used to
define the universal constant. That, in turn, was used to define the unit. Though this approach

4
"File:Prototype mass drifts.jpg - Wikimedia Commons." 2 Sep. 2017,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prototype_mass_drifts.jpg​. Accessed 30 Nov. 2017.
5
"BIPM - Resolution 1 of the 17th CGPM." ​https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/17/1/​. Accessed 3 Dec.
2017.
2
may seem circular, it, more importantly, defines the unit in relation to an unchanging constant as
opposed to a changing object.
This very approach is being used with the kilogram; the only difference is the constant. Here the
constants used will be Avogadro’s constant and the Planck constant. Though only one of them
will be used as the definition of the kilogram, both will supplement each other and be redefined
according to the kilogram, strengthening the definition.

3. Avogadro Approach
Avogadro’s constant (​NA​ ​) is defined as the number of atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12, or about
6.02 x 10²³. Thus, by extension, Avogadro’s number also remains dependent on the IPK.
Consequently, one approach to redefine the kilogram is to redefine ​N​A​, which would in turn
define the kilogram. This would allow us to trace back the unit of mass to a fixed number of
atoms of a specific entity in a specified state. For this to be achieved, the value of ​N​A ​must first
be specified with relative uncertainty of 2 x 10⁻⁸, or 20 parts per billion.6
The International Avogadro Project aims to accomplish this goal using a sphere of a uniform
silicon-28 crystals with a mass of 1kg as per the existing definition. Though it requires a physical
object, the end goal is to calculate the total number of silicon atoms within the sphere within the
uncertainty boundaries mentioned above, i.e 20 μg.7 This number would be used to fix ​NA​ ​, which
would in turn define the kilogram. Avogadro’s constant can be expressed as the volume of the
sphere, ​V​, multiplied by the density of silicon atoms, ​D​s, ​ multiplied by a constant.

N​A ​ = ​V​ x ​D​s ​ x 2​ 8

1000

V x ​Ds​ tells us the number of silicon atoms in the sphere as a whole: 1kg. However, Avogadro’s
constant is a conversion from atomic mass units (amu) to grams. This is why it has to be
multiplied by 0.028, to be converted to grams. And ​V = π d 3 / 6 , w ​ here ​d ​is the diameter of the
sphere.
The uncertainty here lies within:
a) The volume of the sphere. Since the diameter is what’s being measured and it’s being
cubed, it must be known (at the very least) to within the cube root of the desired certainty
3
of ​NA​ ​, or √1 − (2 × 10⁻⁸ ) = 99.9999993% accuracy.

b) The density of the silicon crystal. This is known with extreme precision, so the
uncertainty here is, at the very least, negligibly small. The aim is to minimise uncertainty,
because complete certainty is, for all practical purposes, impossible.

6
"Large-scale production of highly enriched Si for the ... - Institut für Physik." 7 Jun. 2006,
https://www.physik.tu-cottbus.de/physik/xp2/newhp/fileadmin/Lehre/WS0809/AllgPhII/Avogadro-Projekt.pdf​.
Accessed 11 Dec. 2017.
7
"World's Roundest Object! - YouTube." 25 Mar. 2013,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMByI4s-D-Y​. Accessed 11 Dec. 2017.
3
 8

Fig 3.1 ​A diagram of a single unit cell of a

silicon crystal structure

Figure 3.1 demonstrates a single unit cell contains 8 corner atoms, and each is a corner
atom to 8 cells, making for an average of 1 corner atom per cell. 6 face atoms, each part
of 2 cell faces, for an average of 3 face atoms per cell. And 4 atoms within the cell itself.
This makes for an average of 8 silicon atoms per cell. The dimension of a unit cell is 5.43
x 10⁻⁸ cm.9 Thus, there are 8 silicon atoms per 1.601 x 10⁻²² cm³, or about 4.997 x 10²²
silicon atoms per cubic centimeter.

c) The measurement of the mass of the sphere. In order for the calculations to work, it has to
be assumed that the mass of the sphere is exactly 1 kilogram. Thus, its mass relative to
the IPK has to be measured with extreme precision. The target set by the International
Avogadro Project had been to measure it with a relative uncertainty of 5 x 10⁻⁹, or 5μg.
This has been achieved, accounting for air buoyancy, water sorption, oxides and points of
defects. It is now measured with an uncertainty of 4 x 10⁻⁹.10

To minimise measurement uncertainty, it is important to maximise the sphericality of the

spheres, to ensure that the diameter is same regardless of the orientation of the sphere. It has
been measured that, if the sphere were the size of the Earth, the highest mountain and the deepest
valley would be 14m apart.11 In other words, the difference in length of the biggest bump and
deepest scratch on the sphere is 23 nanometres. For comparison, the peak-valley distance on a
game standard billiard ball is more than 860 nanometres.12 Scaled up to the size of the silicon

8
"Index of /hbase/Solids/imgsol." ​http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Solids/imgsol/​. Accessed 10
Dec. 2017.
9
"Silicon Basics -- General Overview.."
https://www1.columbia.edu/sec/itc/ee/test2/pdf%20files/silicon%20basics.pdf​. Accessed 14 Dec. 2017.
10
"State-of-the-art mass determination of 28Si spheres for the ... - Euramet."
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11
"World's Roundest Object! - YouTube." 25 Mar. 2013,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMByI4s-D-Y​. Accessed 14 Dec. 2017.
12
"Section 1 - Billiards and Pool Principles, Techniques, Resources."
http://billiards.colostate.edu/bd_articles/2013/june13.pdf​. Accessed 14 Dec. 2017.
4
sphere, it equates to a difference of more than 1.5μg, over 70 times greater than the difference of
the sphere.

This is the International Avogadro Project. Decades of hard work by scientists around the world
have led to the creation of the roundest objects, perhaps, ever to exist, which will be used to
define a fundamental unit of mass and amount (moles) of substance. So far, Avogadro’s constant
has been measured with a relative uncertainty of 3 x 10⁻⁸, nearing the end-goal of 20 parts per
billion.

13

Fig 3.2 ​The soon-to-be definition of the kilogram

4. Planck’s Constant Approach

Planck’s constant (​h) arose with the discovery of the quantization of light energy into discrete
packets (quanta, from which the term “quantum mechanics” derives its name). It describes the
ratio of an energy of a photon to its frequency: E /ν = h . The dimensions of ν , the frequency of
light, are 1/time. Thus, the dimension of Planck’s constant is ​E/1​ /time, or energy x time. This
dimension is known as action, and the units used are joule-seconds.
h = 6.62607004 × 10−34 joule seconds14

The 2011 General Conference on Weights and Measures recommended that the kilogram be
redefined using Planck’s constant.15 The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)

13
"The 'new' kilogram is approaching: Avogadro constant determined ...." 9 Feb. 2011,
https://phys.org/news/2011-02-kilogram-approaching-avogadro-constant-enriched.html​. Accessed 14 Dec. 2017.
14
"Planck's constant | physics | Britannica.com." 6 Dec. 2017,
https://www.britannica.com/science/Plancks-constant​. Accessed 13 Jan. 2018.
15
"BIPM - Resolution 1 of the 24th CGPM." ​https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/24/1/​. Accessed 14 Jan.
2018.
5
is approaching this definition using a distinct piece of apparatus called a Watt Balance (later
renamed to a Kibble Balance in honor of Dr Bryan Kibble, a lead scientist behind the
instrument’s development).

The Kibble balance compares mechanical power to

electrical power, and then from those equations
derives an accurate value for mass. It achieves this
through 2 modes: Weighing mode and Velocity
Mode.

In weighing mode, the mass standard is placed on the

pan above the induction coils, as shown in Fig 4.1.
The downward force exerted by the mass is
equivalent to its mass (​m​) multiplied by the
gravitational field (​g​). Current is then passed through
the coils until the electromagnetic force on the coil is
equal and opposite to the coil. The upward force is the
product of the current (​I),​ the magnetic field strength
(​B)​ , and the length of the coil (​L)​ . We thus arrive at
the equation:
mg = BLI

Fig 4.1 ​Diagram of the key components of

a Watt Balance

While this does give us a way to calculate mass using other factors, it is practically very difficult
to measure ​BL.​ 16 Velocity mode provides a way around this. In this mode, the mass is removed
off the pan and the velocity drive coil on the other side of the balance is used to move the coils
back and forth through the magnetic field, inducing a voltage (​V)​ .17
The voltage is given by magnetic field strength (​B)​ , the length of the coil (​L​) and the velocity (​v​),
giving us:
V = BLv

Since ​BL i​ s the same in both equations, we can set them equal to one another to derive the
following:
mgv = V I

16
"Redefining the Kilogram, In Focus: Watt Balance | NIST." 7 Oct. 2014,
https://www.nist.gov/physical-measurement-laboratory/focus-watt-balance​. Accessed 20 Jan. 2018.
17
"How We're Redefining the kg - YouTube." 12 Jul. 2017,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oo0jm1PPRuo​. Accessed 20 Jan. 2018.
6
This equation is known as the Kibble Equation. The LHS describes mechanical power and the
RHS describes electrical power, thus giving the name Watt (the unit of power) Balance. It is easy
enough to rearrange the equation to set ​m a​ s the subject, the goal now is to measure each of the
other values as accurately as possible: gravitational acceleration (​g)​ ; velocity (​v)​ ; voltage (​V​) and
current (​I​). The benchmark set by the BIPM is a relative uncertainty of 20 parts per billion, or 2 x
10⁻⁸.

Velocity - To measure velocity accurately, three precise laser interferometers are used at the base
of the induction coil. These detect changes in the interference pattern of the light waves caused
by the moving coil, allowing them to accurately gauge the speed at which it is moving.

Gravity ​- The local gravitational acceleration of the room must be measured continually in this
experiment, as, when measuring in an experiment that requires such a level of precision as this,
tiny differences in solar and lunar tides, changing rotational axis of the Earth and even the
presence of gravitational waves from cosmic events light years away must be taken into account.
To do this, a device called an absolute gravimeter is used In it, a macroscopic corner reflector is
dropped in a vacuum tube, and its acceleration is measured while it falls, using interferometry18.
The value of ​g is measured before the construction of the apparatus, and continues to be
measured regularly while it runs. This reduces the uncertainty in ​g’​ s measurement to within the
range of a couple parts per billion.

Voltage - To create voltage, the Kibble balance makes

use of a quantum effect to make what are known as
Josephson junctions. Essentially, 2 superconducting
metals are separated by a film of insulator thin enough
(30 angstroms or less in thickness)19 to allow Cooper
pair electrons - those responsible for superconductivity
- to quantum tunnel through the barrier and create a
current with zero voltage; supercurrent.20
Fig 4.2 ​A Josephson junction

However, when electromagnetic radiation is applied to the junction, a voltage is created, whose
value is known to be precisely:
hf
V = 2e

18
"The watt or Kibble balance: a technique for ... - Semantic Scholar." 28 Sep. 2016,
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/457d/aa0cfc08bea3cdc7a19d0c53a5cddc0dfa5a.pdf​. Accessed 11 Feb. 2018.
19
"What are Josephson junctions? How do they work? - Scientific American."
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-are-josephson-juncti/​. Accessed 3 Feb. 2018.
20
"Superconducting Qubits and the Physics of ... - UCSB Physics."
https://web.physics.ucsb.edu/~martinisgroup/classnotes/finland/LesHouchesJunctionPhysics.pdf​. Accessed 3 Feb.
2018.
7
Where ​h ​is Planck’s constant, ​f i​ s the frequency of the radiation applied and ​e is the charge on an
electron.21 An arbitrary voltage can thus be created by stacking up these Josephson junctions and
adjusting the frequency of the microwave irradiated at them.

Current - ​Due to the extreme precision with which voltage can be measured using the Josephson
effect, the scientists at NIST decided to measure current by using the equation I = VR and
measure resistance. To do this, another macroscopic quantum effect known as the Quantum Hall
Effect (QHE) is used. The normal Hall Effect. occurs when a 2-dimensional (a thickness of less
than 100 angstroms) conductor is immersed in a magnetic field with a current passing, and a
voltage is produced perpendicular to the current, with a corresponding resistance. The QHE,
however, occurs at temperatures below the boiling point of helium22, where steps form in the
resistance, so-called Hall-plateaus.

23

Fig 4.3​ A graph displaying longitudinal(red) and Hall(black) resistance as a

function of magnetic field B. The i’s on the plateaus indicate the discrete
energy levels of electron orbits at low temperatures under the QHE.

Making use of this effect, the resistance can be quantized to:

RH = 1i eh2

21
"How We're Redefining the kg - YouTube." 12 Jul. 2017,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oo0jm1PPRuo​. Accessed 3 Feb. 2018.
22
"MIT has Created a New Center for Graphene Devices & Systems, MIT ...."
https://plus.google.com/+TomWeiss/posts/Cn4viXnihJ6​. Accessed 5 Feb. 2018.
23
"The Quantum Hall Resistance - PTB.de."
https://www.ptb.de/cms/en/ptb/fachabteilungen/abt2/fb-26/ag-262/the-quantum-hall-resistance.html​. Accessed 13
Feb. 2018.
8
Where 1/​i​ is an integer fraction of known value, ​h​ is Planck’s constant and ​e i​ s the charge on an
electron.24 Then, using a cryogenic current comparator (CCC) and accounting for uncertainties in
that method, this result in the Quantum Hall Resistor can be compared to the resistance in the
Kibble Balance with a relative uncertainty of a couple parts per billion.25

Inputting the constant values into the original equation comparing mechanical and electrical
power, we obtain:
hf hf 2 nf 2 i
mgv = n 2e 2e ieh = 4 h
Where ​n ​is the number of Josephson junctions in the stack, ​f i​ s the frequency of radiation
applied, ​h i​ s Planck’s constant and ​i i​ s the constant in QHE. Rearranging, we find mass to be:
nf 2 i
m= 4gv h

This will be the new definition of the kilogram: an equation based on known values and
fundamental universal constants. As of now, this equation has values with a total relative
uncertainty of 34 parts per billion.26 Once the desired uncertainty of only 20 parts per billion is
reached, it will become the definition of the kilogram.

5. Conclusion
The kilogram is the final remaining SI base unit to be redefined by a universal constant, and will
be defined using Avogadro’s Number and Planck’s constant. The first approach derives from
chemistry, the latter from physics, yet both will ultimately strengthen each other and the
kilogram.
For the first time in history, all 7 base units will be defined by universal constants; not the other
way around. Should Planck’s constant later be found to be a different value to what we originally
measured, what will be changed is the definition of the kilogram, not the value of the constant.
Thus the constants, as suggested by their name, will remain constant regardless.
This redefinition will pave the way for mass measurement of the very big and the very small;
from nanotechnology to astrodynamics. Not only will it allow precise and accurate measurement
calculations and quantifications, but also effective and simple communication of these ideas.

24
"A LEGO Watt balance - American Association of Physics Teachers."
http://aapt.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1119/1.4929898​. Accessed 13 Feb. 2018.
25
"Uncertainty calculation to a new high resistence CCC."
http://ws680.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=32871​. Accessed 13 Feb. 2018.
26
"Redefining the Kilogram: Watt Balance | NIST." 5 Nov. 2014,
https://www.nist.gov/pml/redefining-kilogram-watt-balance​. Accessed 17 Feb. 2018.
9
 Appendix 1

27

27
"Coming in 2018: The New Kilogram - News & Analysis - GlobalSpec." 12 Jan. 2017,
http://insights.globalspec.com/article/3993/coming-in-2018-the-new-kilogram​. Accessed 3 Dec. 2017.
10
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