Introduction and Review of literature

CHAPTER 1 - Introduction /Review of Literature.

1.1Introduction of Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals ("phyto" means "plant") are the bioactive non

nutrient compounds present in plant foods responsible for biochemical
activities, they are found in diet containing fruits, vegetables, grains,
cereals, pulses, and medicinal plants which reduces the risk of major
chronic diseases.

There are over a two lakh twenty thousand phytochemicals out of

which fruits and vegetables have hundred different phytochemicals and
two hundred and fifty thousand species of plants exists on this planet
containing different kinds of secondary metabolites, known as
Phytochemicals. ‘Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food ’
was the famous dictum proclaimed by Hippocrates about 2500 years ago
.Fruits and Vegetables are the rich source of bioactive molecules, ten
thousand bioactive phytochemicals have been identified and are
important for the human diet ( Wise 2001 )and maximum are phenol
compounds, fruits and vegetables have hundred different
phytochemicals, plant provides essential nutrients for life but also other
bioactive compounds which reduces the risk of diseases, and also they
help in prevention of chronic diseases and enhance long-term health
(Scalbert and Williamson, 2000 ; Wlidman 2001). In ancient times
traditional medicines are the alternate medicine of ancient cultures like
the Chinese, Egyptian, Asian, and Native Americans ,plant constituents
,was used for prevention and curing of diseases (Higdon, 2007).

The major classes of phytonutrients which have potential health beneficial

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 Introduction and Review of literature

properties include carotenoids, polyphenols, isothiocyanates, sulphides

and phytosterols. The broad range of natural compounds has multiple
biological functions, phytochemicals and nutraceutical constituents in
plants (Mimica-Dukic et al 2004).

The daily intake of fruits and vegetables in diet has several human
health benefits, fruits and vegetables consisting of various phytochemicals
which fight against several diseases, due to the presence of
phytochemical and antioxidants such as ( flavonoids, proanthocyanins,
phenols, anthocyanin, flavonols, carotenoid, vitamin C and β-carotene) (
Gungor and Sengul, 2008; Panico et al 2000; Kahkonen et al 1999).

Secondary metabolism in plants involves phytochemicals which have

limited distribution in nature based on their biosynthetic origins secondary
metabolites can be recognized into four groups
terpenoids,alkaloids,phenolics,and sulphur compounds .Phytochemical
compounds mainly flavonoids play an major role in prevention of age
related diseases.

The bioactive phytochemicals content of carotenoid foods database

on fruits and vegetables was studied by (Mangel et al 1993)

Consumption of dietary antioxidants from vegetables and fruits is

beneficial in preventing these diseases (Sumazian et al 2010) Fruits and
vegetables reduces the risk of diseases in day to day human life such as
hypertension, and lowers the risk of cancer, heart diseases, and stroke,
because of various phytochemicals and antioxidants present in the plant
foods, e.g. Carotenoid, polyphenol compounds including flavonoids and
anthocyanin .

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 Introduction and Review of literature

Twenty plants have been reviewed for the antioxidant property

(Purkayastha Samhita 2012) and the phytochemical compounds are used
in traditional system of medicine for curing various diseases.

Phytochemicals in Indian traditional culture have been used for curing

cardiovascular diseases, degenerative conditions, rheumatic disorders,
metabolic syndrome, and ageing, a lot of medicinal plants, traditionally
used for thousands of years, are present in a group of herbal preparations
(Ayurveda) by studying the antioxidant activities (S.K Sharma 2013)
present in plants Natural antioxidants having low or no side effects are
used in prevention of diseases plants produce secondary metabolites,
most of the antioxidant compounds are flavonoids, phenols
,anthocyanins, carotenoids are used to overcome the oxidative stress
caused by reactive oxygen species. (Reyhaneh Sariri 2012).

Phytochemicals protects cells from the oxidative damage induced by

free radicals and thereby helps to reduce the oxidative stress. (Cassonova
et al 2008).Fruits and vegetables containing a wide variety of
Phytochemicals such as carotenoids, flavonoids, flavonols, and
anthocyanins are consistently reported to reduce the risk of chronic
diseases.

Phytochemical compound such as phenols are present in fruits and

vegetables and they are the major bioactive compounds for the health
benefits. Consumption of fruits and vegetables has been associated with
reduced risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and
cancer. The total antioxidant activity is highest in cranberry (177 ± 4.3 mol

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 Introduction and Review of literature

µmol, of vitamin c equiv /g of fruit), followed by apple grape, lemon ( Jie

Sun et al 2002).

The major phytochemicals has disease preventing properties, such

as glucosinolates, flavonoids, and phenol acids (Bennett et al 2003
;Coppin 2008; Amaglo et al 2010).Polyphenols are the most important
phytochemicals present in grapes and the main class of polyphenols
includes phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes and lignin because they
possess many biological activities and health-promoting benefits
(Shrikhande A J. 2000; Silva RC 2011 ; Wada, M. 2007)

Phytochemicals found in plants, flavonoids have most of the antioxidant

activity. Oxidative stress is the major factor for diabetes (Dhalla et al 2000;
Kaneto et al 2007) M. oleifera leaves and flowers has higher antioxidant
activity and has been studied (Atawodi et al 2010) in detail for the
therapeutic action in Momordica charantia L., Santalum album L.,Swertia
chirata Buch-Ham., Withania somnifera L.) (Pallavi Saxena, 2011).

Nutritional and Phytochemicals comparative analysis in spinach

cultivars was studied by (Chaturvedi, Sharma 2013 ) the overproduction
of free radicals and reactive oxygen species causes stress related
diseases, the epidemiological studies shows that antioxidant capacity in
plant food provides not only nutrients essential for life but regular
consumption of plant foods (Fruits and Vegetables) is associated with
reduced risk in developing heart diseases, common cancers and
biological ageing ( Singh 2009 ).

Apples have a huge antioxidant and anticancer properties, there are

well known studies , which prove that a combination of plant chemicals

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 Introduction and Review of literature

such as flavonoids and polyphenols known as phytochemicals found in

the flesh of apples and particularly in its skin provides the tremendous
antioxidants and has especially anticancer benefits (Boyer et al 2004)

Polyphenols are a type of antioxidants in our diets, it has much

potential health benefits (He .J and Guisti 2011).Antioxidant nutrients in
fruits and vegetables can work as in a synergistic manner to remove free
radicals (Yeum 2009).Epidemiological studies suggests that consumption
of a diet high in fruits and vegetables is associated with a reduced risk of
chronic diseases.Fruits and vegetables are important sources of a variety
of beneficial agents including vitamins,minerals ,fiber and phytochemicals
( Hung 2004) .Hundreds of phytochemicals compounds with several
different biological functions have been identified in plant based foods
therefore consuming a variety of plant based food helps to ensure that
individuals receive the optimum benefits from fruits and vegetables
consumed. (Manch et al 2004)

Phytochemicals and pharmacological aspects was studied in seven

medicinal plants (Emblica officinalis L., Curcuma longa L. Mangifera
induce L. Radical scavenging property in Emblica officinalis (Suaib
luqman and Ritesh Kumar 2012),studies on flavonoids by (Chatterjee et al
2011),phenol studies by (Povichi et al 2010),antioxidant and
Phytochemical studies on Soyabean by (Shivani chaturdi et al
2012)antioxidant activity in Fenugreek ( Saujanya et al 2012 ;Nahid et al
2012;Subashini et al 2011)antioxidant activity in spices and herbs by( Patel
et al 2012) antioxidant activity in Coriander seeds (Rajeshwari et al
2013),Solanum varieties( Latha 2013),antioxidant activity in Carica
papaya( Maisarah et al 2013,) eighteen tropical fruits of Brazil ( Maria et al

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 Introduction and Review of literature

2010),Antioxidant activity in Mango ( Osman et al 2013),Daucus carota,

Allium sativum (Vivek kumar gupta 2011) ,Alocasia indica, Asparagus
officinalis DC, Portulaca oleracia L. Solanum indicum L.(Ali Aberaoumad
et al 2008,),Spinach, Tomatoes (Toor et al 2006) ,Broccoli (Roy et al 2009
),Capsicum annum ( Naima et al 2013),Antioxidant activity in Apples,
Guava, Sweetlime, Orange, Lemon, Pineapple, Banana, Grapes,
Watermelon, (Ayub ali et al 2010),Green leafy vegetables (Subashree
2009) antioxidant activity in Lichi fruit (Xuewu et al 2007),Antioxidant
activity in Moringa (Shekar Karuna et al
2007),Strawberry,blackcurrent,cranberry,apple,carrot,tomato,oat,(Kahkon
en et al 1999),Potato ( Al-Saikhan et al 1995),dietary fruits,vegetables and
fruit pulps (Hassimotto et al 2005),Pepper (Yamazaki et al 2007).

Flavonoids are commonly found in fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds,

stems,flowers,tea ,wine (Middleton et al 1986)antimicrobial activity
,antiallergic activity ,cytotoxic antitumour activity (Harborne and Williams
., 2000).

PPO(Polyphenoloxidase)extracts have been isolated from a wide variety

of sources including from tea leaf (Halder et al 1998), the pulp of banana
(Yang et al 2000)royal ann cherries (Benjamin and Montgomery ,1973) leaf
and fruit endosperm of coffee (Mazzafera and Simon, 2000),raspberry
fruits (Gonzalez et al 1999),tobacco (Shi et al 2002),aerial roots of tropical
orchids (Ho 1999),grapes (Kimberly et al 1981),tea (Vasyl et al
2001),peppermint leaves, Kavrayan and Aydemir 2001),brinjal (Gosmi and
amarpurkar 2003),indian gooseberry (Latha et al 2013)

Blueberries (Kader et al 1997), strawberry (Serradelll et al 2000) ,Banana

peel (Yang et al 2010, litchi (Jiang et al 1997), plum (Siddio et al 1992 ),

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 Introduction and Review of literature

potato (Cho and Ahn ,1999) Berries , flavonols studies ,Anthocyanin

(Manach et al 2004; Yanishlieva – Maslarova et al 2001),Black grapes
Anthocyanins, flavonols (Belitz and Grosh 1999), Citrus fruits Flavonols
(Beecher et al 2003) ,apples, pears, kiwi (Manach et al 2004 ),sweet
potato leaves Flavonols( Chu et al 2000 ) , spinach (Bergman et al 2001)
,black and green tea (Beecher 2003 )Mint (Atoui et al 2005.)leafy
vegetables Flavonoids, flavones, isoflavones, lignans, catechins,
isocatechins (Subhasree et al 2009).Tea flavonols, flavonoids, polyphenols,
spinach luetin,beta carotene, flavonoids , soyabean isoflanones,
flavonoids, pumpkin seeds, antioxidant vitamins, pomogranate,
poylphenols, lemon flavonols, garlic phenols, flavonoids.

The antioxidant capacity of common fruits and vegetables and drinks

includinggreenandblacktea,prunes,raisins,blueberries,cranberries,blackbe
rries,strawberries,raspberries,garlic,kale,spinach,plums,oranges,redgrapes,
bellpeppers,corn,potao cabbage, banana, carrots, pears, cucumber
(Guo et al 1997 ; Prior et al 1998; Wang et al 2000). Bean (Phaseolus
vulgaris L.)Bay berry (Myrica rubra Sieb .et Zucc), Mustard greens,
(Brassica juncea),okra (Hibiscus esculentus L. ) potato (Solanum
tuberosum L.)Garlic (Allium sativum L.,)onion( Allium cepa L.) Papaya
(Carica papaya ),Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.).

1.1.2. PHYTOCHEMICAL CLASS AND USES

S.No Phytochemical Antioxidant Uses

Class
1 Phenols Antimicrobial, Antidiarrhoeal
(Kumar et al 2010).
2 Polyphenols Antidiarrhoeal, Antimicrobial,

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 Introduction and Review of literature

Antihelminthic (Sutar et al 2010).

3 Flavones Antimicrobial (Das et al 2010).
4 Flavonoids Antimicrobial, Antidiarrhoeal
5 Flavonols Antimicrobial, Antidiarrhoeal, (Eloff
et al 1998).
6 Alkaloids Antimicrobial, Antidiarrhoeal,
Antihelminthic (Sharma et al 2010).
7 Saponins Antidiarrhoeal,
Antihelminthic,Anticancer. (Mali et
al 2010).
8 Polypeptides Antimicrobial, Antidiarrhoeal
(Parekh et al 2006).
9 Terpenoids Antimicrobial, Antidiarrhoeal
(Maniyar et al 2010).
10 Tannins Antimicrobial, Antidiarrhoeal,
Antihelminthic (Patel et al 2010).
The different class of Phytochemicals according to (Hasler 1996 )

S.NO Phytochemical Sources

Compound
1 Polyphenols
a Phenols apples, strawberries,
b Flavonoids citrus fruits,apples,onions,red
grapes,berries
c Flavonols green tea,wine
d Proanthocyanins
e Anthocyanin grapes, strawberries
2 Alkaloids cocoa seeds

3 Sulphur compounds garlic,cabbage,onions

4 Terpenoids cranberries,apples
5 Saponins tomatoes,legumes

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 Introduction and Review of literature

6 Carotenoids Yellow orange fruit and vegetables,

dark green leafy vegetables,
carrots, spinach.
a α Carotene carrot ,pumpkin
b β Carotene carrot, pumpkin
c Zeaxanthin kale, corn
d Lycopene tomato, watermelon, apricots,
orange,
e Leutin corn, grapes, spinach,
pumpkin,coriander,tomato,peas
f Isoflavones soya beans,peas,peanuts,legumes,
7. Tanins peanuts,grapes,apples

1.1.3 Phytochemical uses

 They protect against cardiovascular disease.

 They help in the liver detoxification.
 They help in reducing tumor growth, particularly in the breast, liver,
colon, lung, stomach, and oesophagus.
 They stimulate anti-cancer enzymes, slow the formation of blood
clots, and are known to boost the immune system..
 Inhibits cancer-generating substances, helps to improve urine flow
and urinary symptoms in men with enlarged prostate glands
stimulates enzymes that convert estrogen to a more benign form
and may block steroid hormones that promote breast and prostate
cancers.
 They protect the body from inflammation, allergic reactions, and
viral infections. Protects the blood vessels from rupture.
 Protect cells from oxidative damage, Prevents excessive
inflammation throughout the body and helps to prevent breast
cancer.

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 Introduction and Review of literature

 They lower high levels of blood cholesterol, thereby slowing the

development of atherosclerosis
 Phytochemicals protects lung tissue cells from the damaging
effects of free radicals
 Phytochemicals helps to prevent cancer by interfering with the
development of cancer.
 Reduces eye-related diseases like macular degeneration and
cataract, It protects the body from damaging molecule, anti-
inflammatory and anti-tumor properties.

1. 2. Introduction of Free Radical

Radical: A radical is an atom or group of atoms that have one or

more unpaired electrons( Halliwell and Gutteridge 1999)

Free radical

Free radicals are highly reactive molecules or chemical species

capable of independent existence, generation of highly reactive
oxygen species (ROS) is an integral feature of normal cellular function like
mitochondrial respiratory chain, phagocytosis, arachidonic acid
metabolism, ovulation, and fertilization, (Gutteridge 1994).

Oxygen, of its bi-radical nature, accepts unpaired electrons to give

rise to a series of partially reduced species collectively known as Reactive
oxygen species ,(ROS) others such as superoxide (O2-), hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl(HO), peroxyl (ROO), Alkoxy (RO), and nitric
oxide (NO ).

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 Introduction and Review of literature

1.2.1 Types and Formation of Free radical

production
According to (Waris et al 2006) free radicals and reactive oxygen
species (ROS) are produced, continuously during normal physiological
processes and causes per oxidation of membrane lipids, leading to the
accumulation of lipid peroxides, which damage the biomolecules such as
nucleic acids, lipids, proteins, carbohydrates,) DNA damage leading to
mutation.

Oxygen is important for most living organisms, and also a source of

endogenous oxidants, various reactive species, are capable of
producing radicals, they are formed during normal metabolic processes.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are of many types some of them are
superoxide, hydroperoxyl, hydroxyl, alkylperoxyl, alkoxyl, carbonate and
carbondioxide radicals (Halliwell and Gutteridge,2007), high oxygen
concentration damages tissues increasing and causing tumors and
other diseases (Plaine, 1955) and cause damage to DNA, and thus
production of hydrogen peroxide and other Reactive Oxygen Species
(ROS), (Lorentzen and Ts’o, 1977). Increased consumption of fruit and
vegetables has been associated with protection against diseases,
including cancer and cardiovascular diseases. A diet rich in fruits and
vegetables acts against Alzheimer's disease, various cardiovascular
pathological conditions and several common cancers , the beneficial
effect of most of natural fruits and vegetables is due to the presence of
natural antioxidants ,capable of scavenging Reactive oxygen species
(ROS), these later are oxygen-containing molecules or atoms that possess
an unpaired electron. They are naturally generated during cellular
respiration as a by-product.

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 Introduction and Review of literature

Free radical reactions usually take place in a chain reaction

consisting of initiation, propagation and termination steps (Burton and
Ingold, 1986). The initiation step comprises the production of a radical. In
the propagation multi-step reactions a radical reacts with non-radical
compounds to produce new reactive species. Those chain reactions
continue until two radicals react with other to produce a non-reactive
molecular product or an antioxidant breaks the chain through reaction
with a radical, this step is called termination.

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 Introduction and Review of literature

Formation AND mechanism of Free radicals

Steps for free radical formation Free radical chain reaction
1. Initiation RH-R˙
2. Propagation: R˙ + O₂-ROO ˙
ROO˙ + RH –
ROO ˙ + RH- ROOH+ R˙
3. Termination: ROO + ROO -molecular products.

Endogenous sources

Mitochondrial leak

Respiratory burst Lipid

peroxidation
Enzyme reactions

Antioxidant
reactions

Free radicals oxidative stress Tissue damage death

Environmental
sources
Protein
Cigarette smoking
modification
UV –light

Ionizing radiation.

FREE RADICAL FORMATION

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 Introduction and Review of literature

1.2.2 Diseases caused by Free radicals

S .No Category Examples

1 Visual Cataract and age related macular
disorders degeneration (Diplock et al 1998).
2 Neurological Parkinson’s disease (Jenner et al 1992),
diseases Scheizophrenia.( Smythies,1998).
3 Shock Septic hemorrhagic and burn shock are all
associated with severe oxidative stress and
depletion of antioxidant defenses (Goode and
Webster 1993).

4 Respiratory Asthma, lung cancer, cystic fibrosis, especially

diseases exacerbations, exposure to environmental
pollutants (NO3, NO2, SO2), Autoexhaust),
emphysema. (Van der Vliet and Cross 2000).
5 Digestive Inflammatory bowel disease, ulcers, colitis
system (Grisham, 1993).
diseases
6 Muscular Rheumatoid arthritis (Halliwel et al 1992).
skeletal
7 Infectious AIDS, Malaria (Halliwell Guttenberg 1999).
diseases
8 Endocrine Diabetes (Paolisso et al 1995).
disease

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 Introduction and Review of literature

1.2.3.Oxidative stress
An imbalance between free radical production and antioxidant
defense causes oxidative stress and is associated with damage to a
wide range of molecular specie including lipids, proteins and nucleic
acids. Oxidative stress is caused by excessive generation of reactive
oxygen species including superoxide free radicals ,hydrogen peroxide
,singlet oxygen ,nitric oxide , peroxynitrite ( Pitocco et al 2010).

Oxidative stress occurs , when natural antioxidants in the human

body is not sufficient to fight excessive generation of reactive species
(Halliwell, 2001) and the damage caused to the tissues causes diseases
like cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases , such
diseases are often strongly associated with ageing, and there is an
evidence that oxidative damage to DNA, lipids and proteins increases
diseases ( Halliwell and Gutteridge 2007; Mecocci et al 1999; Hamilton
et al 2001; Venkateshappa et al 2012). Since free radicals are casually
involved in the disease state , it is believed that antioxidants should
have in preventing or delaying the occurrence. The mitochondrial
damage caused by ROS and decline in ATP synthesis seems to play a
key role in various diseases especially high concentration of reactive
oxygen cause damage to DNA and further tissue death.(Kowald 2000)

S.NO Oxidative stress disorders References

1 Autoimmune disorders such as Turgay et al 2007
systemic lupus erythematosus
2 chronic pulmonary disorders such Chao and Moon , 2010 ; Liu
as asthma et al., 2009
3 Loss of hearing Kim et al 2008

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 Introduction and Review of literature

4 Diabetes Yang et al 2011

5 Eye disorders Hayes 1974; Katz et al 1989
6 Generalized anxiety disorder Khanna et al 2012
7 Hepatitis Venturini et al 2010
8 Inflammmatory bowel diseases Kruidenier et al 2003
9 Pancreatis Escobar et al 2012

10 Rheumatoid arthritis Desai et al 2010

Examples of disorders associated with oxidative stress

INTRODUCTION OF ANTIOXIDANT

1.3. Introduction of Antioxidants

According to ( Halliwell and Gutteridge 2007) an antioxidant is “a

chemical substance that prevents the oxidative damage to a target
molecule”. Fruits, vegetables and other plant foods are widely
consumed in Mediterranean diets and contain a high percentage of
health promoting and protective compounds known as antioxidants.
Numerous scientific studies have revealed that oxidative stress releases
free radicals and causes wide range of diseases, including
cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, inflammatory diseases and cancer,
(Dreher and Junod, 1996; Halliwell, 2001).

Antioxidants play an essential role in reducing the free radical

formation and helps in various changes in human body from DNA
mutation to cell death .The antioxidants are useful in preventing the
transfer of premalignant lesion in malignancy, Antioxidants include beta
carotene, Carotenoid, vitamin c, vitamin E, trace elements like zinc,

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 Introduction and Review of literature

selenium (Birangane RS et al 2011) thus, it has been suggested that a diet

rich in antioxidants retards the onset of such diseases. Living organisms are
capable of producing various compounds as a part of their antioxidant
defense. Naturally occurring antioxidants include a range of enzymes (for
example superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase), coenzyme Q,
melatonin, iron-binding proteins (for example transferrin, lactoferrin),
Vitamins C, E as well as Carotenoids, flavonoids and other plant phenolics
(Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2007). Dietary intake of natural antioxidant is an
important factor in the body’s defenses mechanism against these agents;
also, many antioxidants are being identified as anti-carcinogens (Ames
1993; Sumazian et al 2010)

Low dietary intake of fruits and vegetables double the risk of most
types of cancer as compared to high intake .The use of antioxidants in
pharmacology is intensively studied, particularly as treatments for stroke
and neurodegenerative diseases. Moreover, oxidative stress is both the
cause and the consequence of diseases.

1.3.1 Structures, Types and Sources.

1.1 .A. Antioxidant secondary metabolites.
Carotenoid:

Sources– Carotenoids are a family of pigmented compounds that are

responsible for yellow, orange and red color in plants. There are various
types such as β- carotene, lycopene, lutein, capsaicin. Fruits and

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 Introduction and Review of literature

vegetables constitute major sources of carotenoids in the human diet

which are responsible for the beneficial effects in preventing human
diseases like cancer and other chronic diseases, high concentration of
carotenoids are present in carrots , orange, watermelon, sweet potatoes,
green leafy vegetables kale, collard greens, spinach and turnip greens ,
amaranthus , curry leaf, drumstick leaves ,fresh coriander, fenugreek,
tomatoes, papaya, carrots, apricots, mangoes.

β-carotene

Sources. It is particularly rich in yellow, orange, and green leafy fruits and
vegetables like carrots, mango ,papaya ,squash, broccoli, sweet
potatoes, tomatoes, kale, collards, cantaloupe, peaches and apricots , in
general, the greater the intensity of the color of the fruit or vegetable, the
more beta-carotene it contains and it neutralizes free radicals which
damage cells , bolsters cellular etc .

Lycopene:

Sources - Found in tomatoes, pink and red grapefruit,coloured guava,

apricots, watermelon, papaya, cherries, pomegranate and in asparagus.
Lycopene gives tomatoes its red color they are the best sources for
lycopene and reduces the risk of prostate and lung cancer.

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 Introduction and Review of literature

C.Lutein

Sources: The name indicates yellow colored phytonutrients and it is

derived from a Greek word it means yellow , they are found in collards,
spinach, corn, citrus , it helps in maintenance of healthy vision ,age-
related macular degeneration ,angina pectoris , asthma ,cataracts,
cervical cancer , heart disease ,lung cancer , male and female infertility
and osteoarthritis .

Capsaicin

Sources: It is found in hot red peppers, cumin, turmeric, bell pepper,

tomato, corn, coriander, peppers and nuts

Organosulphides:

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 Introduction and Review of literature

Sources: They are present in onions, garlic, leeks they consists of a

compound known as allicin and helps in the immune system, detoxifies
carcinogens and retards lipid formation (Dewick 2008).

1. Allyl sulfides

Sources: It is found in garlic; onions .They stimulates anticancer enzymes,

detoxifies carcinogens, lowers cholesterol, enhances detoxification of
undesirable compounds and maintenance of healthy immune system.

1.1 Isothiocyanates

Sources: They are found in, cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli,

cabbage, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, collards, kale, mustard greens,
turnips, and it enhances detoxification of undesirable compounds

a.Flavonoids

Sources : They are the most abundant antioxidant in the diet and they are

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 Introduction and Review of literature

found maximum than other classes of phytochemicals and known as

dietary vitamin antioxidants ( Scalbert 2000).They are present in
green tea, wine,grape
extract,apples, apricots, blueberries,pears, raspberries, strawberries,
blackbeans, cabbage, onions, parsley, beans, tomatoes , Carrots,
mushroom, peas, spinach, white wine, coffee, cranberry ,pepper,
strawberry( Evans 1996) they have anticancer, antimicrobial and anti
inflammatory activity

b. Isoflavones:

Sources: Found in whole-grains, berries, soybeans and some fruits and

vegetables (Scalbert ; Williamson 2000).

c. Anthocyanin

Sources: They are a group of flavonoids, anthocyanins have a high

antioxidant capacity found in tea leaves, wines, fruits, vegetables, cocoa
seeds,olive seeds, eggplants,plums and black currants grapes,
blueberries, cranberries, and raspberries .They bolstercellular antioxidant
defense and may contribute to maintenance of brain function(Harborne
1999).

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 Introduction and Review of literature

d.Flavonol

Sources: They are the most ubiquitous flavonoids found in plants such as
onions, apples, tea, broccoli; they neutralize free radicals which cause
damage to the cells (Crozier 2006).

e.Proanthocyanins.

Sources : Red wine ,grape seeds ,cranberries, cocoa, apples,

strawberries, grapes, wine, peanuts, cinnamon, reduces the coronary
heart diseases, diabetic retinopathy and macular degeneration
,prevents strokes and heart disease .They Lowers blood cholesterol level ,
Inhibits platelet aggregation and vascular constrict

f.Phenols

Sources : They are found in celery, cranberries, onions, kale, cocoa beans

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 Introduction and Review of literature

, broccoli, apples, cherries, berries, tea, red wine or purple grape juice,
parsley, soybeans, tomatoes, eggplant, red wine, grapes, olive seeds ,it
helps in healthy vision and heart health (Croeteu et al 2000).

1.1 B.Phytosterols

Sources :Found in soya products and fortified margarines, nuts, flaxseeds,

broccoli, avocados,it lowers the cholesterol levels

1.1.C. Sterols

Sources: Spinach, whole grains, nuts, olive oil, soybean, safflower seeds
,peas, kidney beans .They appears to have cholesterol-lowering effects,

1.1 .D .Phytoestrogens:

Sources: They are found in soya products and linseeds,they retards the
progression of cancer

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 Introduction and Review of literature

II .Antioxidant vitamins

a.Vitamin A

Sources: Found in fruits and vegetables which are yellow, red, green and
orange such as parsley, sweet potatoes, watermelon, broccoli, carrots,
dark leafy greens and mangoes, they help as a Immune booster,
irradicates eye problems such as night blindness and dry eye, skin disease
such as acne , sinusitis, reproductive difficulties and protects cells from
free radicals.

b. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).

Sources: ascorbic acid is found in oranges, strawberries, sprouts,

papaya, watermelon guava ,amla ,mango ,pineapple, raspberries,

cherries, lemons, tomatoes, green peppers, red peppers , cauliflower ,
cabbage.They protect cells from free radicals respiratory infections,
bleeding gums and other dental problems, bruising.

c. Vitamin E

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 Introduction and Review of literature

Sources : wheat germ, nuts (almonds), seeds, whole grains, green leafy
vegetables, broccoli, mangos, corn, soybean oil, vegetable oils,
sunflower seeds, fortified cereals, Vitamin E (tocopherol), functions as an
antioxidant in various chemical reactions due to its characteristic
structure. A fat-soluble vitamin known as alpha-tocopherol helps in
delaying ageing and preventing of wrinkle formation of skin, healing
sunburn. While it's not a miracle worker, it's another powerful antioxidant.
It has anti cancer activity and cholesterol lowering ability nuts, bell
peppers, protects cells from free radicals, helps in immune function and
DNA repair (Herrera 2001).

III. Antioxidant minerals.

a. Zinc

Sources : Pumpkin seeds and other nuts, oatmeal, parsley, wheat germ,
helps and protects the immune function, impotence, menopause,
premenopausal health, hormone balancing, memory, skin disease,
pancreas and thyroid health, macular degeneration and other eye

25
 Introduction and Review of literature

disorders, protects cells from free radicals, helps with immune function
and DNA repair.

b. Selenium:

Sources: Peanuts, beans, and wholegrain cereals, brown rice, whole

wheat bread, potato, nuts, sunflower seeds, wheat bran, rice, oats.
Selenium is a mineral, not an antioxidant nutrient however, it is a
component of antioxidant enzymes, it fights from cell damage by
oxygen-derived compounds and protects against cancer

Antioxidant Enzymes

Antioxidant is a compound that prevent the oxidation of lipids and

other molecules by inhibiting the initiation and propagation of an
oxidizing chain reaction (Ramle et al 2008) production of free radicals
causes oxidative stress and cause damage to the tissues ,muscles .The
human body uses an antioxidant system to neutralize the excessive levels
of reactive oxygen species .This system consists of enzymatic antioxidants
called as antioxidant enzymes there are different types of antioxidant
enzymes such as catalase, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase,ascorbic
acid oxidase ,superoxide e dismutase and glutathione reductase.

26
 Introduction and Review of literature

Catalase

Catalse is an common enzyme found in all living organisms exposed

to oxygen. It catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide to water and oxygen , it consists of four subunits, each
containing a haem group and a molecule of NADPH ( Kirkman et al 1999)
and is located within cells in peroxisomes ,which also contain most of the
enzymes capable of generating hydrogen peroxide ,optimum pH for
catalase is approximately neutral 7.0

2 H2O2 2 H2O + O2.

Peroxidase

Hydrogen peroxide is a substrate for many enzymes, but others are more
active with organic substances hydro peroxides such as lipid peroxides.
Peroxidase enzyme contain a heme cofactor in their active site. The
nature of the electron donor is very dependent on the structure of the
enzyme and can use a variety of organic compounds as electron donors
and acceptors consists of a large family of enzymes that typically
catalyze a reaction, (Hirst 2008 )

ROOR' + electron donor (2 e-) + 2H+ → ROH + R'OH

Polyphenol oxidase.
The enzyme catalyses the o-hydroxylation of monophenols
(phenol molecules in which the benzene ring contains a single hydroxyl
substituent) to o-diphenols is a tetramer that contains four atoms of
copper per molecule, and binding sites for two aromatic compounds
and oxygen,phenol molecules containing two hydroxyl substituents .

27
 Introduction and Review of literature

They further catalyse the oxidation Of o-diphenols to produce o-

quinones. It is the rapid polymerization of o-quinones to produce black,
brown or red pigments (polyphenols) that is the cause of fruit browning.
The amino acid tyrosine contains a single phenol ring that may be
oxidized by the action of PPOs to form o-quinone hence, PPOs may also
be referred to as tyrosinases

Glutathione reductase
The enzyme activity is dependent on the constant availability of
reduced glutathione ( Masella et al 2005 )the ratio of reduced to oxidized
glutathione is very high , as a result , the NADPH required by the enzyme
to replenish the supply of reduced glutathione is provided by the pentose
phosphate pathway ,it catalysis the following reaction
1.3.2.Antioxidant diseases / disorders and use

S.No Antioxidant Disorder caused Mechanism of action

1 Alkaloids Cancer, A variety of biological
neurodegenerat activities such as
ive diseases topoisomerase 1 and 11 ,
,chronic cytotoxicity against different
inflammation tumor cell lines
2 Catechins Neurodegenerat Enhances activity of SOD and
ive disease catalase mechanism
3 Carotenoids Cancer, Acts as physical quencher of ROS
diabetic,
retinopathy,
disease, chronic
inflammation
4 Phenolics Cancer, Scavenger of lipid peroxy radical
diabetic
retinopathy,
disease, chronic
inflammation

28
 Introduction and Review of literature

5 Tanins Cardiovascular Enhance synthesis of nitric oxide

disease and relax vascular segments.

Antioxidant Uses

Builds proteins, strengthens nervous system , provides essential oils, fight

viruses, fights against bacteria, relives inflammation, reduces the risk o
cancer, enhances cellular communication, strengthens immune system
protects cells, inhibits platelet aggregation and clotting, controls diabetes
strengthens vision, strengthens memory , fights cellular mutation
,strengthens vision

1.3.3.Antioxidants and their

mechanism of action

The harmful action of ROS and free radicals is normally blocked by

antioxidant substances, which scavenge the free radicals and detoxify
the organism (Kumaran 2006). Antioxidants are the bioactive compounds
that delay or inhibit the oxidation of lipid or other molecules by inhibiting
the initiation or propagation of oxidizing chain reactions, all aerobic
organisms have antioxidant defense systems these systems are able to
scavenge free radicals and retards the process of lipid peroxidation, the
major cause of food and pharmaceutical deterioration ( Halliwel 1997 ) .
Antioxidants protect the human body from free radicals and ROS effects.
They retard the progress of many chronic diseases as well as lipid
peroxidation (Gulcin 2007).

The two main mechanisms of antioxidant action are: Antioxidants

interrupts the free radical chain reaction and interferes with the free
radical and the intermediate products generated during the oxidation

29
 Introduction and Review of literature

process. Antioxidants are able to turn ROS into stable, harmless

molecules they are used in various applications such as pharmaceutical,
food, cosmetic, and chemical industries in order to act as preservative
and extend efficiency and economical value of the

products considering the antioxidant capacity of an organism is limited,

and excess production of various oxidizing compounds produces a
condition called oxidative stress. Oxidative stress Contributes to the
pathogenesis of various diseases (e.g. cancers, neurodegenerative
disorders and diabetes)

Mechanism of

Antioxidant
Antioxidant enzyme

 Catalase

Free radical production  Peroxidase

 Polyphenol oxidase

O2-,H2O2
Chain breaking Metal binding proteins
antioxidants
Ferretin
Phenols, flavonols,
flavonoids, anthocyanins, Trasferin
ascorbic acid
OH. Lactoferrin

Tissue damage

Mechanism of Antioxidant

30
 Introduction and Review of literature

1.3.4.Introduction to the research plant material

A.Mangifera indica L.
Mangifera indica varieties are (Neelishaan gujrathi, Suwarna sindura,
CISH M1, Sensation,Krishna pasand and D-51)

Family :Anacardiaceae

Genus: Mangifera

Species –M.indica

Mangifera indica L. , is cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions ,

India ranks first in the world production ,it is recognized as national fruit of
India ,Pakistan and philipines ,it is native to South Asia, it is also called as
king of fruits commonly known as in (English –Mango, Hindi - Aam , Telugu
– Mamidi),

In the present study six Mango varieties (Suwarna sindura

,Neelishan gujrathi, CISH M1,Sensation,D-51,Krishna pasand) have been
used for the quantification of secondary metabolite content , enzyme
activity , antioxidant assay and antioxidant vitamin content .

Mango contains a variety of phytochemicals and nutrient rich

sources such as dietary fiber, vitamin C, such as A , C, vitamin B6
(pyridoxine), folate, other B vitamins and essential nutrients, such as
potassium and amino acids ,phenolic antioxidants and carotenoids, by
(Gonzalez et al 2007).
Mango peel and pulp contains other compounds, such as carotenoids
,polyphenols, and omega-3 and -6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, beta-

31
 Introduction and Review of literature

carotene, lutein and alpha-carotene, polyphenols such as quercetin

kaempferol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechins, tannins, and mangiferin
these compounds are potential to counteract with various diseases,
these bioactive compounds are good antioxidants and their daily intake
in the diet has been related to prevention of degenerative processes
such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer (Block et al 1992, Lampe,
1999 and Liu, 2003). In vitro antioxidant and free radical scavenging
antioxidant potential composition (total phenolics, carotenoids and
ascorbic acid) in the pulp of four mango cultivars (Haden, Tommy
Atkins and Ubá) shows that they are good source in human diet,
(Ribeiro et al 2007) and has been related to prevention of degenerative
processes , such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer

Antioxidant mechanisms of action in Mangifera indica extract

interaction with Fe (III) have the High efficiency from iron-induced
oxidative damage (Anila et al 2003) and (Gilberto et al 2006)

Analysis of Phenol compounds, antioxidant enzymatic studies such

as peroxidase, glutathione reductase ,reducing power,lipid peroxide
and antioxidant activity by free radical-scavenging in the aqueous-
methanolic extracts of four varieties of mango pulp, peel and seed
kernels was studied by ( Ribeiro et al 2008)

Mangifera indica L. are rich sources of dietary fiber, vitamin C, and

phenolic antioxidants and numerous studies have been conducted on
the potential nutritional health-effects of fruit (Carvalho et al 2007:
Garrido et al 2004a, 2004b; Rodriguez et al 2006 ) and showed the high
concentrations of many diverse phenol compounds in mango,
especially in the peel and kernels .

32
 Introduction and Review of literature

Levels of β-Carotene, Ascorbic Levels, and total phenols in the pulp of

five commercial varieties of Mangifera indica L., showed the maximum
phenolic content (John 2009)

Phytochemical composition and antioxidant activities of Mangifera

indica and Mucuna urens seeds was carried out to evaluate and
compare the phytochemicals composition and antioxidant activities of
Mangifera indica and Mucuna urens seeds

Similar work was done in peels of three Indian mango varieties, such as
Deshehari, Chausa and Fazli , by (Manju Nehra, Alka Sharma 2012).

According to (Nicolai Berardini et al 2005) mango peels consists of

pectin and polyphenols. Quercetin is one of the major dietary flavonoids
belonging to a group of flavonols. It occurs mainly as glycosides,
according to physical, chemical and biological properties as well as
their content in some plant derived food. (Małgorzata Materska 2008)

B.Vitis vinifera L.
Vitis vinifera varieties are( Thompson seedless, Flame seedless, Kismis
chorni ,Rizamat and Pusa navrang )

Family : Vitis
Species : V.vinifera.

Vitis vinifera (Common grape vine) commonly known as in ( English

– grapes,Hindi – angur, Telugu – draksa) and for the present study , five
varieties have been used (Thompson seedless, , flame seedless, kimis

33
 Introduction and Review of literature

chorni, Pusa navrang.Rizamat.) and they are native to the

Mediterranean region, central Europe, there are about sixty species of
Vitis, which are mainly found in the temperate zones of the northern
hemisphere and almost equally distributed between America and Asia
(Mullins et al 1992).Antioxidant compounds such as carotenoids ,
flavonoids , flavones , isoflavones, flavonones, flaovnols has much
antioxidant activity (Castonguay et al 1997) and consists of many
phenol compounds ,anthocyanin content is found in the skin of the
berries, hydroxycinnamic acids in the pulp . Grape phenolics, are high in
the grape peel,and are classified into two groups: the flavonoids and
non-flavonoids. The flavonoids include flavan-3-ols (catechin), flavonols
(quercetin) and anthocyanin. The non-flavonoids encompass
hydroxybenzoates (gallic acid), hydroxycinnamates and stilbenes
(resveratrol) exhibiting antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory and
antiallergenic effects (Cook and Samman, 1996).

Anthocyanins are natural pigments, which are responsible for the

orange, red, blue, violet colours of some fruits and flowers, besides the
attractive color their positive health effects are also significant (Kong et
al 2003). Grapes are one of the major dietary sources of Anthocyanin,
which are responsible for the coloring of black, red and purple grapes
(Hou et al 2003 ; Hogan et al 2009) reported on the antioxidant
properties of Norton (Vitis aestivalis) and Cabernet Franc (Vitis vinifera)
are the wine grape varieties (Breksa et al 2010) studied on the
antioxidant activity and phenol content of 16 raisin grape (Vitis vinifera
L.) cultivars .Analysis of total phenols, total flavonoids, total anthocyanin
and resveratrol in wine grapes and table grapes, was studied by (
Mulero et al 2010).Quantitative analysis of wine varieties and (Cabernet
Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, Zinfandel, and Carignane), table

34
 Introduction and Review of literature

grapes (Emperor,Tokay, Perlette and Ribiero)) was studied by (Wada M,

2007 ; Urpi-Sarda M, 2009).

Fruits have an important function in maintaining the physiological

balance, optimal levels of antioxidants such as vitamin C and phenol
compounds ,Anthocyanin, tannins, and phenol acids, being the most
important for the human body (Miele et al 1990).Vitamin C present in
grapes, fights against reactive oxygen species (Soares et al. 2004) and
polyphenols are associated with the prevention of diseases caused by
oxidative stress.(Nicolai Berardini et al 2010) (Boskou Dimitrios 2006).

Polyphenols from grapes and red wines attracted the attention of

scientists to define heir chemical composition and their properties for
human health

C.Punica granatum L.
Punica granatum varieties are (Bhagwa, Arakta, Mrudula, Ganesh and
G-137)

Family – Lythraceae
Genus – Punica
Species – P.granatum

Pomegranate Known as in (English – Pomegranate, Hindi – anar,

Telugu – danimma )for the present study five varieties have been used
(Bhagwa, Arakta Mrudula G-137, Ganesh. )it is a fruit-bearing deciduous
shrub or small tree growing between 5–8 metres (16–26 ft).

There are over thousand cultivars of Punica granatum (Levin, 1994),

35
 Introduction and Review of literature

originating from the middle east, extending throughout the

Mediterranean, eastward to china . Pomegranate fruits were being used
from ancient times and were being widely used in Many different cultures
and countries for thousands of years. Pomegranate fruit has gained a
great deal of Popularity over the years. Originally from the Middle East
and Asia.

Punica granatum (pomegranate) and its potential for prevention and

treatment of inflammation and cancer( Ephraim P. Lansky a, Robert A.
Newman 2006) (Dobrovolskaia and Kozlov, 2005; Garcea et al 2005;
Ohshima et al., 2005 , Elfalleh et al 2009). Quantification of phenols,
flavonoids, anthocyanin in pomegranate including antioxidant capacity
of different extracts from different parts of the plant (Gunjan Jadon 2012,
Kishore et al 2009). The pomegranate is a symbol of life, longevity, health,
femininity, fecundity, knowledge, morality, immortality and spirituality, if
not Divinity (Mahdihassan, 1984). In ayurvedic medicine the pomegranate
is considered” a pharmacy unto itself,” the bark and roots have
antihelmintic and vermifuge properties (Naovi et al., 1991), it possess
various pharmacological and toxicological properties including
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory (by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines),
anti-cancer and anti-angiogenesis activities Cambay et al 2011, (Ephraim
P. et al. 2006 , Devatkal et al 2010 , Osama et al 2010 ; Moneim 2004 )
studied

The peels of pomegranate are powerful astringent and cures diarrhea

and oralaphthae, and the juice a “refrigerant
(Arseculeratne et al., 1985) and “blood tonic” (Lad and Frawley, 1986 ;
Nagaraju and Rao, 1990 ; Boukef et al., 1982 ; Caceres et al., 1987 ;
Dikmen et al 2011; Qu et al 2010

36
 Introduction and Review of literature

S.no Pomogranate Functional property Referrence

fruit part
1 Juice Antioxidant Gil et al 2000
Antiatherosclerotic Kaplan et al 2001
Platelet Aviram et al 2002
aggregation
inhibitor
Anti cholesterol Esmaillzadaeh et al
2004

Anticancer Nam et al 2002

2 Peel Antioxidant Singh et al 2002
Antibacterial Negi and
Jayprakash 2003
wound healing Murthy et al 2004
Antitumor Castonguay et al
1997
Antimutagenic Negi et al 2003
3 Seed Antioxidant Singh et al 2002
Antitumor Hora et al 2003
Estrogenic Mori – okamoto et al
2004
Anticancer Kohno et al 2004

Comparative antioxidant activity and total flavonoids content of

persian pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) cultivars was studied by (
Mohammad Reza Shams et al 2011 ; Harborne et al 1999 ).

D.Vegetables. L.
a, Spinacia olerecea varieties : Spinach-1.Allgreen. 2. Harith Shobha ;
Coriandrum sativum, (coriander) variety - Ajmer Coriander (C1).
Trigonella foenicumg raecum(fenugreek) variety Ajmer Methi (M1) ;
Tomato (Arka vikas) ; Amaranthus 1.Arka suguna. 2. RNA 1 ; Moringa
oleifera (drumstick)variety – PKM 1.

37
 Introduction and Review of literature

a.Spinacia oleracea L.
Family – Amaranthaceae
Genus – Spinacia
Species – S.oleracea

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) commonly known as in ( English –

Spinach, Hindi – Palak, Telugu – Palakura) .It is an annual plant grows in
the tropical and Temperate regions (Hannatu et al 2011)

Spinach has a high nutritional value and is extremely rich in

antioxidants, it is a rich source of carotenoids ,vitamin A (and especially
high in lutein), carotene , and zeaxanthin, vitamin C ( USDA 2005), vitamin
E, vitamin K, magnesium, manganese, folate, betaine, iron, vitamin B2,
calcium, potassium, vitamin B6, copper, protein, phosphorus,
iron,zinc,niacin, selenium and omega-3 fatty acids and phenol
compounds .

The natural antioxidants in spinach leaf extracts and their biological

activities were described by ( Grossman S; 1994 , Lomnitski L 2000 ,
Zurovsky1994 , Zurovsky Y ,1995 Ferreres F et al 1997, Gopalan C, 1996)
and is used medicinally for treating anemia, night blindness, tooth
disorder, urinary disorder, cancer and respiratory disorder, anti-ageing
agent, sun protective, antipyretic agent , anti inflammatory antioxidant
property (Kiritiker K.R. and Basu B.D. 1995). Phenol compounds have
been shown to exhibit cellular defense mechanism in anther genesis and
cancer (Gill et al. 2000)

b.Coriandrum sativum L.
Family – Apiaceae

38
 Introduction and Review of literature

Genus – Coriandrum
Species – C.sativum.
Coriandrum sativum L.(variety Ajmer coriander) ,commonly known as
in (English – coriander ,Telugu- kottimira, Hindi – kothmeer) it is an annual
herb . C. sativum probably originated from Eastern Mediterranean and it
distributed as a spice plant to India, China, Russia, Central Europe, India
and Africa (Small, 1997)

All parts of the plant are edible, the fresh leaves and the dried seeds
are the parts most traditionally used in cooking. The leaves and seeds
contain antioxidants, and the leaves have stronger effect. Chemicals
derived from coriander leaves have antibacterial activity. Coriander has
been used as a folk medicine for the relief of anxiety and insomnia in Iran.
Coriander seeds are used in traditional Indian medicine as a diuretic by
boiling equal amounts of coriander seeds and cumin seeds, then cooling
and consuming the resulting liquid. In holistic and traditional medicine, it is
used as a carminative and as a digestive aid. Coriander has been
documented as a traditional treatment for type 2 diabetes.

Coriandrum sativum L. is an annual, herbaceous plant that grows 25

to 60 cm in height it has a thin, spindle-shaped roots, erect stalk,
alternate leaves and small, pinkish-white flowers (Burdock and Carabin,
2009)the fruits are almost ovate globular and there are many longitudinal
ridges on the surface. The length of this fruit is 3 to 5 mm and the color,
when dried, is usually brown, but in green, straw-colored or off white small
plant like parsley which dates back to around 1550 BC, It belongs to
Apiaceae family; the order of Apiales contains about 300 genera and
more than 3000 species and is one of the oldest spice crops in the world
(Coskuner and Karababa, 2007). (Asgarpanah et al 2012).

39
 Introduction and Review of literature

Coriander seeds has (Coskuner and Karababa, 2007), antibacterial

actiivty,(Silva et al 2011a), antifungal ,Silva et al 2011b), antioxidant
activity studies in C.sativum by (Wangensteen et al 2004),
hepatoprotective studies was done by (Sreelatha et al 2009),
antihelmintic properties by (Eguale et al., 2007), anticonvulsant activity
by (Emamghoreishi and Heidari-Hamedani, 2008), protection of gastric
mucosal damage by (Al-Mofleh et al., 2006), hypercholesterolemia
studies by (Dhanapakiam et al., 2008) and antileishmania property by
(Rondon et al., 2011), gut modulator, blood pressure lowering, and
diuretic studies by (Jabeen et al., 2009).

c.Trigonella -foenumgraecum L.
Family- Fabaceae
Genus –Trigoneela
Species – T.foenumgraecum

Trigonella -foenumgraecum is an annual plant commonly known

as in ( English – Fenugreek ,Telugu- Mentham, Hindi – Maethi) .The plant
has small round leaves, and is cultivated worldwide as a semi-arid crop.

The experimental work was studied on Ajmer methi (M1). Fenugreek

leaves (per 100 g of edible portion) contain many nutrients such as,
Carbohydrates: 6.0 g, Protein: 4.4 g, Fat: 0.9 g, Minerals: 1.5 g, Calcium:
395 mg, Phosphorus: 51 mg Iron: 1.93 mg, Total energy: 49 k cal.

Phytochemical helps in the prevention of oxidative damage to

human beings (Enayde, 2005)from free radicals, it has been reported
that the diet rich in antioxidant phytochemical, such as polyphenols,
carotenoids, terpenoids and flavonoids protects against cellular
40
 Introduction and Review of literature

damage from free radicals (Singh, 2008, Singh, 2009 ). Flavonoids and
phenol compounds are widely distributed in plants and have been
reported to show multiple biological effects, including antioxidant, free
radical scavenging abilities, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic activity,
etc. Fenugreek contains phenol and flavonoid compounds which help to
enhance its antioxidant capacity (Dixit 2005) ,according to (Balch 2003)
fenugreek has powerful antioxidant property that has beneficial effect
on liver and pancreas, since antioxidant properties have been linked to
health benefits of natural products, such properties are studied with
germinated fenugreek seeds which are observed to be more beneficial
than dried seeds because of the fact that germinated seed increases the
bioavailability of different constituents of fenugreek, (Grover et al 2002)
reported that fenugreek seeds showed hypoglycemic and
antihyperglycemic activity.

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is one of the most promising

medicinal herbs, known from ancient times, having nutritional value too.
Its green leaves and seeds are used for multipurpose, 100 g of seeds
provide more than 65% of dietary fiber due to its high fiber content and it
has an ability to change food texture. It is well known for its gum, fiber,
alkaloid, flavonoids, saponin .Fenugreek contains phenol and flavonoids
compounds which help to enhance the antioxidant capacity and
volatile contents. In various medicinal applications, it works as
antidiabetic, anticarcinogenic, remedy for hypercholesterolemia and
hypoglycemia, antioxidant, antibacterial agent, gastric stimulant green
fenugreek leaves are one of the most ancient medicinal herbs ( ( Yadav
and Sehgal 1997) found that fresh fenugreek leaves contain ascorbic
acid ,carotene .The fresh leaves are used in the vegetables as green
leafy vegetables in the diets

41
 Introduction and Review of literature

d.Lycopersicum esculentum L.
Sub –Family – Solonoideae
Genus - Solanum
Species–S.lycopersicum.

Lycopersicum esculentum Commonly known as in (English – tomato,

Hindi –tamatar, Telugu – tomato), for the present study Arka Vikas variety
has been used for the analysis of phytochemical compounds. Toamto
plants grows upto the height of 1–3 meters (3–10 ft) in height and have a
weak stem that often sprawls over the ground and vines over other plants
, it is a perennial plant and it’s a native habitat an average common
tomato weighs 102–105 grams it contains antioxidant phytochemicals
such as the carotene and lycopene .It is the most powerful natural
antioxidant found to prevent prostate cancer and shown to improve the
skin's ability to protect against harmful UV rays.

Tomato consists of normal amount of vitamin C , 40 times normal

vitamin A , high levels of anthocyanin (resulting in blue tomatoes), red
tomatoes contain flavonols,quercetin, kaempferol and flavones,
consumption of tomato has been associated with decreased risk of
breast cancer, head and neck cancers and strongly protective against
neurodegenerative diseases and is beneficial for reducing
cardiovascular risk associated with type two diabetes. There was an
increase in the contents of lycopene and β-carotene due to ripeness in
Lycopersicon esculentum((Olijer et al 2011) it consists of carotenoids,
lycopene, ascorbic acid, flavonoids and other related compounds with
an antioxidant activity (Diplock et al., 1998) (Davies and Hobson, 1981)

42
 Introduction and Review of literature

e.Amaranthus viridis L.

Family- Amaranthaceae

Genus – Amaranthus L.

Amaranthus, known as in (English - Amaranth, Telugu – thota kura, Hindi

- chavleri sag) and the varieties used for the present study is Arka suguna
and RNA 1, it is an annual and short-lived perennial plants . Amaranthus
leaves are a good source of protein,dietery fibres,carotenoids vitamin A,
vitamin C, and folate , thiamine, niacin, and riboflavin( Shukla et al., 2006),
and some dietary minerals including calcium, iron, potassium, zinc,
copper, and manganese ( Kadoshnikov et al., 2008 : Ozbucak, Ergen
Akcin, & Yalcin, 2007).

Amaranthus helps to enhance eyesight. Amaranthus giganticus L. (red)

and Amaranthus Palme L. (green) has high vitamin C content (Smitha et
al 2011). Carotenoids exhibit a central role against cancers,
Cardiovascular diseases and HIV infection and other age-related
disorders (Gerster, 1977). Phenolic content , in Amaranthus species, have
been studied by ( Amin et al., 2006; Pacifico et al.2008 and Saxena et al
2007).

f.Moringa oleifera L.
Family – Moringaceae
Genus- Moringa

Species – M.oleifera Lam.

Moringa oleifera commonly known as in (English – drumstick
(Horseradish tree), Telugu – munaga, Hindi - sahajan) the variety used for

43
 Introduction and Review of literature

the present study is PKM - 1 variety.

Morphology: Moringa oleifera is a small, fast-growing evergreen

or deciduous tree that usually grows to a height of 9 m, with a soft and
white wood and corky and gummy bark. Roots have the taste of horse-
radish leaves are longitudinally cracked leaves, 30-75 cm long main axis
and its branch jointed, glandular at joints, leaflets are glabrous and
entire, the leaflets are finely hairy, green and almost hairless on the
upper surface, paler and hairless beneath, with red-tinged mid-veins,
with entire (not toothed) margins, and are rounded or blunt-pointed at
the apex and short-pointed at the base. It is distributed among sub
Himalayan tracts, assam, bengal and peninsular India. It is a small fast
growing ornamental tree originally belongs to india .Roots , bark, pods
and leaves of this tree are used in traditional medicine for the treatment
of human diseases ,where by the leaves enriched in vitamin A and C (
Mughal et al 1999 ).

The leaves are the most nutritious part of the plant, and are rich in
protein, β carotene, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C , K and minerals such
as manganese,iron,calcium,zinc,phosphorous and potassium , 100g of
fresh .Moringa leaves have 8.3 g protein, 434 mg calcium, 404 mg
potassium, 738 μg vitamin A, and 164 mg vitamin C. Current research is
now directed towards natural antioxidants originated from plants due to
safe therapeutics. Moringa oleifera is used in Indian traditional medicine
for a wide range of various ailments (Prithviraj Chakraborty et al. 2012)
traditionally, the plant is used as antispasmodic, stimulant, expectorant
and diuretic.According to (Mustapha 2006; Coppin, 2008, Amaglo et al.
2010).) reported that higher concentration of β-carotene content was in
Moringa than in spinach and lettuce, which are green leafy vegetables

44
 Introduction and Review of literature

this is an indication that vegetables with higher chlorophyll content are

likely to be richer in β-carotene ,the findings of a study further suggest
that moringa leaves had higher vitamin A content compared to the
other vegetables having recorded a higher retinol equivalent. This further
suggests the direct association between β carotene and vitamin A.
Fenton reaction (Heim, 2002).

The India Ayurveda the dried root bark of Moringa is used for the
treatment of goiter, glycosuria and lipid disorders (also dried seeds),
and leaf, seed, root bark and stem bark in internal abscess, piles
(Jaiswal et al., 2009)extracts of leaf, fruit and seed of Moringa act as
an antioxidant (Singh et al., 2009) during a study reporting antioxidant
property of freeze dried Moringa leaves from different extraction
procedures, it was found that methanol and ethanol extracts of Indian
origin Moringa have the highest antioxidant activity with 65.1 and 66.8%,
respectively (Lalas and Tsaknis, 2002;Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003) it was
also reported that the major bioactive compounds of phenolics, such as
quercetin and kaempferol are responsible antioxidant activity (Bajpai et
al., 2005; Moringa seeds for their antioxidant potential found out
that Moringa seeds are superiors for radical scavenging (Ogbunugafor
et al., 2011 ; Gacche et al 2010).The major medicinal
phytochemicals present in Moringa are flavonoids and phenols are
naturally occurring antioxidants, usually found in fruits and vegetables
(Patricia Garcia-Salas et al. 2008; Amaglo et al., 2010; Kasolo et al., 2010.
) M. oleifera leaves varies with the geographic and climatic conditions
under which the plant was grown, as well as with the processing methods
for the collected leaves (Bennett et al., 2003; Coppin, 2008; Mukunzi et
al., 2011).

45
 Introduction and Review of literature

Moringa plant is highly valued for medicinal properties, medicinal

properties like anemia, anxiety, asthma,blackheads, blood impurities,
bronchitis chest congestion, cholera, conjunctivitis, cough, diarrhea, eye
and ear infections, fever, abnormal blood pressure, pain in joints,
scurvy,root and fruit are anti paralytic,leaf juice is used in cough

Moringa is said to have beneficial properties that can serve humanity

the whole plant is used for curing diseases it has an antipyretic,
anthelmintic properties,the root juice is employed in cardiac tonic,
antiepileptic. And also used for nervous debility, asthma, therapeutic
effects is because of combined actions of various bioactive components
found in the plant including trace metal ions, vitamins alkaloids,
carotenoids, polyphenols, fats, carbohydrates,

46
 Introduction and Review of literature

1.4.AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

 To exploit rich varieties and diversities of fruits and vegetables for

the preventive management of various stress, nutrient , age

related diseases and disorders

 To Screen some selected fruits and vegetables for quantitative

evaluation of phytochemicals,antioxidants,antioxidant

enzymes,antioxidant assay ,antioxidant vitamins present.

 To asses and compare the antioxidant secondary metabolites

content , antioxidant enzyme activity and antioxidant capacity

within different varieties of selected fruits and vegetables

 To asseesment which variety is superior over others with reference

to secondary antioxidant metabolites, antioxidant enzyme activity

and antioxidant capacity .

 To determine which fruit and vegetable variety is best in which

type health improving property

 To formulate a strategy for preventing and protecting the human

populations from various stress ,nutrient , age related diseases

and disorders

47