MA313 Real and Complex Analysis

Lecture 3.1

Sequences and Their Limits 2

Sequence in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Convergence and limit of a sequence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Note Well. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Example ...continue... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Example ...continue... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Theorem: Uniqueness of Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Tail of a sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
ACTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1
Sequences and Their Limits 2 / 16

Sequence in R
A sequence of real numbers (or a sequence in R is a function whose domain is N and
whose range is a subset of R.

Thus a sequence in R is a function from N into R.

RSH MA313L3.1 – 3 / 16

Notation
Think of sequence as:

• x:N→R

• (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . ) or (xn : n ∈ N)

• (xn )n∈N or (xn )∞

n=1 or (xn )n≥1

• Being defined recursively or inductively; for e.g. Fibonacci sequence:

x1 = x2 = 1
xn+1 = xn−1 + xn−2 for n ≥ 3
RSH MA313L3.1 – 4 / 16

Convergence and limit of a sequence

A sequence X = (xn ) in R is said to converge to x ∈ R, or x is said to be a limit of (xn ), if

for all ǫ > 0 there exists a natural number K(ǫ) such that

|xn − x| < ǫ for all n ≥ K(ǫ).

If the sequence has a limit, we say that the sequence is convergent and write

lim xn = x or (xn ) → x as n → ∞;
n→∞

if it has no limit, we say that the sequence is divergent.

RSH MA313L3.1 – 5 / 16

2
 Note Well
In the definition of convergence:

for all ǫ > 0 there exists a natural number K(ǫ) such that

|xn − x| < ǫ for all n ≥ K(ǫ). (1)

1. K(ǫ) is used to emphasize that the choice of K ∈ N depends on the value of ǫ.

2. For convenience, we normally just write K but bearing in mind that this depends on ǫ.

3. Usually, a “small” value of ǫ would require a “large” value of K to guarantee that (1)
holds.
RSH MA313L3.1 – 6 / 16

Example
2n + 3 2
Prove: lim = .
n→∞ 3n + 5 3
Proof. Let ǫ > 0. We need to find K such that
 
 2n + 3 2 
 3n + 5 − 3  < ǫ for all n > K.
 

Now,  
 2n + 3 2  1 1 1
 3n + 5 − 3  = 9n + 15 < 9n < ǫ ⇔ n> .
 
9ǫ
1
Take K = . Then for all n > K,
9ǫ
 
 2n + 3 2  1 1 1 1
 3n + 5 − < = · < · 9ǫ = ǫ.

3  9n 9 n 9

This completes the proof. ,

RSH MA313L3.1 – 7 / 16

3
 Example
3n + 1 3
Prove: lim = .
n→∞ 7n − 4 7
Proof. Let ǫ > 0. Need to find K such that
 
 3n + 1 3 
 7n − 4 − 7  < ǫ for all n > K.
 

Now,    
 3n + 1 3   19  19 4 19
 7n − 4 − 7  =  7(7n − 4)  = 7(7n − 4) < ǫ ⇔ n> + .
   
7 49ǫ
4 19
Put K = + . Then if n > K, then
7 49ǫ
 
 3n + 1 3  19 19 19 19
 7n − 4 − 7  = 7(7n − 4) < 7(7K − 4) = 28 + 19/ǫ < 19/ǫ = ǫ.
 

This completes the proof.

RSH MA313L3.1 – 8 / 16

Example ...continue...
Computations:
4 19
ǫ K= +
7 49ǫ
(distance between (position in
limit and terms) the sequence)
1 1
0.25 2
0.0156 100
0.000244141 1589
5.96 × 10−8 6505452
3.46945 × 10−18 1.11763 × 1017
,
RSH MA313L3.1 – 9 / 16

4
 Example
Prove: lim xn = 0, where 0 < x < 1.
n→∞

Proof. Let ǫ > 0. We need to find K such that

|xn − 0| < ǫ for all n > K.

Now,
ln ǫ
|xn − 0| = |xn | = xn < ǫ ⇔ n > logx ǫ = .
ln x
ln ǫ
Put K = . Then for all n > K,
ln x

|xn − 0| = xn < ǫ.

This completes the proof. ,

RSH MA313L3.1 – 10 / 16

Example
Prove: {(−1)n } is not convergent.

Proof. (Contradiction) Suppose {(−1)n } is convergent. Then there exists ℓ ∈ R such

that
lim (−1)n = ℓ.
n→∞

Let ǫ = 1 in the definition of convergence. Then there exists K such that

|(−1)n − ℓ| < 1 for all n > K.


n 1 when n is even;
Note that (−1) =
−1 when n is odd.
Thus for any odd integer n > K,

|(−1)n − ℓ| = | − 1 − ℓ| < 1, (2)

and for any even integer n > K,

|(−1)n − ℓ| = |1 − ℓ| < 1. (3)

RSH MA313L3.1 – 11 / 16

Example ...continue...
Now, (2) and (3) imply that ℓ is within one unit of both −1 and 1, which is absurd.
Therefore {(−1)n } is not convergent. ,
RSH MA313L3.1 – 12 / 16

5
 Theorem: Uniqueness of Limits
A sequence in R can have at most one limit.

Proof. Let ǫ > 0. Suppose (xn ) has two distinct limits ℓ ′ , ℓ ′′. There there exist K ′ , K ′′
such that
ǫ
|x − ℓ ′ | < for all n > K ′
2
and
ǫ
|x − ℓ ′′ | < for all n > K ′′.
2
Put K = max {K ′, K ′′ } . If n > K, then

|ℓ ′ − ℓ ′′ | = |(ℓ ′ − xn ) + (xn − ℓ ′′)|

ǫ ǫ
≤ |xn − ℓ ′| + |xn − ℓ ′′ | < + = ǫ.
2 2
Since ǫ > 0 is an arbitrary real number, we conclude that ℓ ′ − ℓ ′′ = 0. 
RSH MA313L3.1 – 13 / 16

Theorem
Let (xn ) be a sequence in R and x ∈ R. The following are equivalent statements.
(i) (xn ) → x
(ii) For every ǫ > 0, there exists K ∈ N such that

|xn − x| < ǫ for all n ≥ K.

(iii) For every ǫ > 0, there exists K ∈ N such that

x − ǫ < xn < x + ǫ for all n ≥ K.

(iv) For every ǫ–neighbourhood Vǫ (x) of x, there exists K ∈ N such that

xn is in Vǫ (x) for all n ≥ K.

Proof. Exercise. 
RSH MA313L3.1 – 14 / 16

6
 Tail of a sequence
If X = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn, . . . ) is a sequence of real numbers and if m is a given natural
number, then the m–tail of X is the sequence

Xm := (xm+n : n ∈ N) = (xm+1 , xm+2 , . . . ) .

Theorem. Let X = (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers and let m ∈ N. Then the m–tail
Xm of X converges if and only if X converges, and that

lim Xm = lim X

Proof. Exercise. 
RSH MA313L3.1 – 15 / 16

ACTIVITY
Refer to Bartle–Sherbert’s Introduction to Real Analysis (3rd Edn).

2 Read Section 3.1

2 Do Exercises 3.1: 1–17 (odd)

RSH MA313L3.1 – 16 / 16