Annex B (informative) Sample calculations

This annex illustrates the application of equations, tables, and graphs for designing a substation
grounding system. The specific objectives are as follows:

a) To show the application of principal equations of this guide for several refinements of the
design concept toward a satisfactory final design solution.
b) To illustrate the typical differences to be expected between results obtained using the simplified
calculations of this guide and the more rigorous computer solutions.
c) To illustrate such design conditions for which the use of simplified calculations of this guide
would not be appropriate for a safe design, as some of the equations may only be used with
caution.

In view of these objectives, the following series of examples (B.1 through B.4) neither represents, nor
is intended to be, the best or most efficient way to design a grounding system.

A computer-based grounding program described in EPRI TR-100622 [B64] was used to model the grids
in these examples.

For the series of examples (B.1 through B.4), the design data are as follows:
Fault duration tf = 0.5 s
Positive sequence equivalent system impedance Z1 = 4.0 + j10.0 Ω (115 kV side)

Zero sequence equivalent system impedance Z0 = 10.0 + j40.0 Ω (115 kV side)

Current division factor Sf = 0.6

Line-to-line voltage at worst-fault location = 115 000 V

Soil resistivity ρ = 400 Ω-m
Crushed-rock resistivity (wet) ρs = 2500 Ω-m

Thickness of crushed-rock surfacing hs = 0.102 m (4 in)

Depth of grid burial h = 0.5 m

Available grounding area A = 63 m × 84 m
Transformer impedance, (Z1 and Z0) = 0.034 + j1.014 Ω (13 kV) (Z = 9% at 15 MVA, 115/13 kV)
The crushed-rock resistivity is assumed to be a conservative estimate based on actual measurements of
typical rock samples. The equivalent system fault impedances and current division factor Sf are
determined for the worst-fault type and location, including any conceivable system additions over the
next 25 years. Thus, no additional safety factor for system growth is added. In addition, it is assumed
that the substation will not be cleared by circuit breakers with an automatic reclosing scheme. Thus, the
fault duration and shock duration are equal.

B.1 Square grid without ground rods—Example 1

Using the step-by-step procedure as described in 16.4 and illustrated in Figure 32, the following design
evaluations can be made.

Step 1: Field data. Although the substation ground grid is to be located within a rectangle of 63 m ×84
m (5292 m2), for the initial design assessment it may be expedient to assume a square 70 m × 70 m grid
with no ground rods. Consequently, the area occupied by such a grid is A = 4900 m2. An average soil
resistivity of 400 Ω-m is assumed, based on soil resistivity measurements.

Step 2: Conductor size. Ignoring the station resistance, the symmetrical ground fault current If ≈ 3I0, is
computed using Equation (72)

E
I= (B.1)
0 3× Rf + (R1 + R2 + R0) + j(X1 + X 2 + X0)

For the 115 kV bus fault

(3)(115 000 / 3 )
3I0 = 3(0) + ( 4.0 + 4.0 +10.0) + j (10.0 +10.0 + 40.0)
and, hence

|3I | = 3180 A, and the X/R ratio = 3.33 0

For the 13 kV bus fault, the 115 kV equivalent fault impedances must be transferred to the 13 kV side
of the transformer. It should be noted that, due to the delta-wye connection of the transformer, only the
positive sequence 115 kV fault impedance is transferred. Thus

Z1 =
13
[4.0 + j10.0]+ 0.034 + j1.014 = 0.085+ j1.142
115

Z0 = 0.034+ j1.014

(3) 13 000 3

)
3I = 3(0) +(0.085+ 0.085+ 0.034)+ j(1.142+1.142+1.014
0

and,
henc
e

|3I | = 6814 A, and the X/R ratio is

16.2 0

The 13 kV bus fault value of 6814 A should be used to size the grounding conductor.

Using Table 10 for fault duration of 0.5 s, the decrement factor Df is approximately 1.0; thus, the rms
asymmetrical fault current is also 6814 A. This current magnitude will be used to determine the
minimum diameter of ground conductors.
Assuming the use of copper wire and an ambient temperature of 40 °C, Equation (47) and Table 2 are
used to obtain the required conductor cross-sectional area. For 0.5 s and a melting temperature of 1084
°C for hard-drawn copper, the required cross-sectional area in circular mils is

K t
Akcmil = I × f c (B.2)

Akcmil = 6.814×7.06 0.5 = 34.02 kcmil

34.02 kcmil = 17.2 mm2

Because A =πd2 /4 , the conductor diameter is approximately 4.7 mm, or 0.0047 m if it is solid
2

mm

conductor.

Based on this computation, a copper wire as small as size No. 4 AWG could be used, but due to the
mechanical strength and ruggedness requirements, a larger 2/0 AWG stranded conductor with diameter
d = 0.0105 m (0.414 in) is usually preferred as a minimum.

Consequently, at this stage, the designer may opt to check if, alternately, the use of a less conductive
(30%) copper-clad steel wire and the imposition of a more conservative maximum temperature limit of
700 °C will still permit the use of a conductor with diameter d = 0.01 m.

Using Equation (46) and Table 1 gives

197.4
Akcmil = I (B.3)
TCAP Ko + Tm
ln
tcarρr Ko + Ta

2
197.4
Akcmil = 6.814 = 59.81 kcmils or 30.24 mm
3.85 245+ 700

(0.5)(0.00378)(5.862) ln 245+ 40

In this case, dmin = 6.2 mm, or 0.0062 m solid conductor, which is less than d = 0.01 m desired. Hence,
a
30% copper-clad steel wire of approximately 2/0 AWG size is a viable alternative for grid wires, even
if a conservative maximum temperature limit of 700 °C is imposed.

Step 3: Touch and step criteria. For a 0.102 m (4 in) layer of surface layer material, with a wet
resistivity of 2500 Ω-m, and for an earth with resistivity of 400 Ω-m, the reflection factor K is computed
using Equation (21)

ρ− ρs
K= (B.4) ρ+ρs

K == −0.72

Figure 11 indicates for K = –0.72 the resistivity of the surface layer material is to be derated by a
reduction factor Cs ≈ 0.74. The reduction factor Cs can also be approximated using Equation (27)

ρ
009. 1−
ρs
Cs =1−
2hs + 009. (B.5)

400
009. 1−
2500
Cs =1− = 0.74
2(0102.) + 009.

Assuming that for the particular station the location of grounded facilities within the fenced property 1 is
such that the person’s weight can be expected to be at least 70 kg, Equation (30) and Equation (33) may
be used to compute the tolerable step and touch voltages, respectively, as follows:

Estep70 = (1000 + 6Csρs ts )0157. /(B.6)

Estep70 = [(1000 + 6(0.74)2500)]0.157 0.5 = 2686.6

/ ts

Etouch70 = (1000 +15. Csρs )0157.(B.7)

Etouch70 =[(1000 +1.5(0.74)2500)]0.157 0.5 = 838.2

Step 4: Initial design. Assume a preliminary layout of 70 m × 70 m grid with equally spaced conductors,
as shown in Figure B.1, with spacing D = 7 m, grid burial depth h = 0.5 m, and no ground rods. The
total length of buried conductor, L , is 2 × 11 × 70 m = 1540 m.
T

1
That is, not accessible to the general public.
 Figure B.1—Square grid without ground rods
Step 5: Determination of grid resistance. Using Equation (57) for L = 1540 m, and grid area A = 4900
m2, the resistance is

1 + 1 1 (B.8)

Rg = ρ 1+ 20A
LT
1+ h 20 / A
1
1
R = 400 1 + 1+ = 2.78 Ω
g

1540
20×4900 1+ 0.5 20 4900

Step 6: Maximum grid current IG. Per the procedure and definitions of 15.1, the maximum grid current
IG is determined by combining Equation (68) and Equation (69). Referring to Step 2, for Df = 1.0, and
the given current division factor Sf = 0.6,

Ig
S f= (B.9)
3× Io

and

IG = Df × Ig (B.10)

Though the 13 kV bus fault value of 6814 A is greater than the 115 kV bus fault value of 3180 A, it is
recalled from Clause 15 that the wye-grounded 13 kV transformer winding is a “local” source of fault
current and does not contribute to the GPR. Thus, the maximum grid current is based on 3180 A.

IG = Df ×S f ×3×I0 (B.11)
IG = (1)(0.6)(3180) =1908 A

Step 7: GPR. Now it is necessary to compare the product of IG and Rg, or GPR, to the tolerable touch
voltage, Etouch70

GPR = IG ×Rg (B.12)

GPR=1908×2.78 = 5304 V

which far exceeds 838 V, determined in Step 3 as the safe value of Etouch70. Therefore, further design
evaluations are necessary.

Step 8: Mesh voltage. Using Equation (86), Equation (87), Equation (88), Km is computed

1 D2 (D + 2×h)2 h Kii 8

π
Km = 2× × ln 16×h×d +8× D×d− 4×d + Kh ×ln π(2×n −1) (B.13)
where

Kii = (B.14)

(2×n)n

Kii = = 0.57
(2×11)11
and

h
Kh 1+ = (B.15)
h0

05
.
1+
Kh . == 1225.
10

1 72 (7 + 2×0.5)2 0.5 0.57 8

π
Km = 2 ln 16×0.5×0.01 + 8×7×0.01 − 4×0.01 +1.225

ln π(2×11−1) = 0.89
The factor Ki is computed using Equation (89) through Equation (94)

Ki = 0.644+ 0.148×n (B.16)

where

n=n×n×n×n (B.17) a b c d

2×LC (B.18)
n=
a Lp na=

=11

nb = 1 for square

grid nc = 1 for square

grid nd = 1 for square

grid and therefore

n=11×1×1×1=11

Ki = 0.644+0.148×11= 2.272

Finally, Em is computed using Equation (85) and Equation (95)

ρ× IG × Km × Ki
Em = (B.19)
LC + LR

Em = = 1002.1 V

Step 9: Em versus Etouch. The mesh voltage is higher than the tolerable touch voltage (that is, 1002.1 V
versus 838.2 V). The grid design must be modified.

For comparison, the EPRI TR-100622 [B64] computer program resulted in 2.67 Ω and 984.3 V for the
grid resistance and touch voltage, respectively, for this example.