Thermodynamics 3.1.1 Characteristics of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics 3.1.1 Characteristics of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
3.1.1 Characteristics of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is an exact science as it has a mathematical base.
Usefulness of thermodynamics lies in correlating the observable properties of substances with some of the
nonobservable ones.
It points out the feasibility of changes, extent and direction in which they may proceed. These changes may be
physical processes or chemical reactions.
It is not necessary to know the nature of the fundamental particles or the mechanism of the phenomenon. The
deductions are made using everyday experiences, some basic laws and mathematical tools.
Classical thermodynamics can be studied by dealing with the energy changes taking place at the macroscopic level
without emphasizing the changes that occur at molecular level.
Did you know?
3.1.1 Characteristics of Thermodynamics
Each molecule of the system contributes to the total property of the system. These properties can be pressure,
energy, volume, or any other property. Classical thermodynamics does not study the individual contribution of
each molecule, but the average behaviour of a large number of molecules.
The branch of science, which deals with the relation between properties of single molecule and bulk properties
of the system, is known as Statistical Thermodynamics.
3.1.2 Limitations of Thermodynamics
It deals with materials in bulk without any reference to the internal structures.
It gives the feasibility, direction, and extent of a change but not the time taken for such a change to take place. The
time taken for the completion of a process is studied under chemical kinetics.
It deals with stationary or equilibrium states only.
It deals with materials in bulk without any reference to the internal structures.
It gives the feasibility, direction, and extent of a change but not the time taken for such a change to take place. The
time taken for the completion of a process is studied under chemical kinetics.
It deals with stationary or equilibrium states only.
3.1.3 Important Thermodynamic Terms
System: It is that part of the universe on which theoretical or experimental investigations are carried out. A system is said
to be a part of the universe to which we direct our attention for theoretical or experimental investigations and which is
separated from the rest of the universe by a real or imaginary welldefined boundary. For example, if the effect of pressure
on the volume of the gas has to be studied, then the system is the gas taken in a container. Similarly, any solution taken in a
beaker is known as the system when its properties are being studied.
Surroundings: The rest of the universe in the neighbourhood of the system is known as its surroundings. It lies outside the
system and is also called the environment of the system. The system can exchange matter or energy or both with its
surroundings.
A system and its surrounding are together known as the Universe.
Boundary: Anything that separates the system from the surroundings is known as a boundary. It is also known as the wall
of the system. The system interacts with its surroundings across the boundary. There are various types of boundaries
depending upon their nature:
Real or imaginary
Rigid or non rigid
Conducting (diathermic) or nonconducting (adiabatic)
Permeable, impermeable or semi permeable
Electrically conducting or nonconducting
Transparent, translucent, or opaque.
A given boundary can belong to various categories. For example, the walls of a beaker constitute a real, rigid, impermeable
and diathermic boundary. The various categories of boundaries have been summarized in Fig. 3.1.
http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=6225&chapterid=6984 1/9
4/18/2017 Thermodynamics
Figure 3.1: Important categories of boundaries
Figure 3.1: Important categories of boundaries
3.1.4 Types of Systems Based on the Type of Boundary
The system exchanges matter and energy with the surroundings across the boundary. Therefore, the boundary decides the
relationship of the system with its surroundings and hence it also decides the category to which the system belongs.
i. Open system: When the system has a permeable boundary then both the matter and the energy can move across the
boundary. So, the exchange of matter (mass, m) and energy (U) can take place between the system and the
surroundings. This type of system is known as an open system. For the open system Δm ≠ 0 and ΔU ≠ 0.
ii. Closed system: When a system has an impermeable but diathermic boundary then the matter cannot flow across the
boundary but energy exchange can take place between the system and the surroundings. Such a system is known as a
closed system. For this system Δm = 0 and ΔU ≠ 0.
iii. Isolated system: When a system has an adiabatic boundary, then matter and energy exchange cannot take place
between the system and the surroundings. Such a system is known as an isolated system. For this system Δm = 0 and
ΔU = 0.
The physical state and other important properties of the system are decided by the pressure (p or P), temperature (T),
volume (V), and the amount (number of moles, n) of the system. These four variables define the state of the system.
Therefore, these variables are known as state variables.
3.1.5 State of the System
Thermodynamic Process: It is any operation or process that brings about a change in the state of the system. Expansion,
compression, heating and cooling are some of the examples of a thermodynamic process. The initial state of the system is
defined by the pressure, temperature, volume, and amount of the system before the change takes place. The final state of
the system is defined by the values of pressure, temperature, volume, and amount of the system after the change has taken
place. A process is said to have taken place whenever there is a change in any one or more of the state variables. For any
state variable Y, if the change in the state variable is large it is represented by ΔY (delta Y). If the change is infinitesimal
(very small) it is represented by dY.
3.1.6 Thermodynamic Processes
Classification of Processes Based upon the Change in Thermodynamic Variables
Thermodynamic processes are classified into various categories depending upon the thermodynamic properties that are
undergoing a change during the process. These categories are as follows:
i. Isothermal process: It is a process during which the temperature of the system remains constant, that is, ΔT = 0.
ii. Adiabatic process: It is a process during which the system does not exchange heat with the surroundings, that is, q =
0.
iii. Isobaric process: It is a process during which the pressure of the system remains constant, that is, there is no change
in the pressure, ΔP = 0.
iv. Isochoric process: It is the process during which the volume of the system remains constant, that is, ΔV = 0.
v. Cyclic process: It is the process during which the system after undergoing a series of changes comes back to the
initial state. The series of changes taking place is known as a cycle.
Path: The sequence of steps taken by a system during a thermodynamic process starting from the initial state, through an
intermediate state to the final state is known as a path. The path can consist of a single or more steps.
Classification of Processes Based upon Path
Depending upon the path followed by the system, there are two types of processes: reversible and irreversible processes.
http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=6225&chapterid=6984 2/9
4/18/2017 Thermodynamics
Reversible process: A process is said to be reversible if the system undergoes a change in the state through a specified
sequence of intermediate states, each one of which is an equilibrium state. In addition, the system can be restored to the
initial state by following the same sequence of steps in the reverse order. That is, a process is said to be reversible if it can
proceed in forward and backward directions by a small change in state variables. When the system comes back to the initial
state the surroundings are also restored to their initial state. That is, the process is said to be reversible only if the system
can retrace its steps without any net change in the system and the surroundings. The process should be reversible in both
forward and backward directions. Each reversible process is slow but each slow process may or may not be reversible.
The chemical reaction in a galvanic cell at the null point is an example of a reversible process. At null point the external
potential applied is equal but in the opposite direction to the cell emf. When the external potential is decreased by an
infinitesimal amount the reaction goes in the forward direction and when the external potential is infinitesimally greater
than the cell emf the reaction proceeds in the backward direction.
Irreversible process: A process is said to be irreversible if the change takes place without the system being in equilibrium
with its surroundings at any stage during the change. The system cannot retrace its path without the help of an external
source. Hence, the system can attain its initial state by some change in the surroundings.
Most of the natural processes and the spontaneous processes are irreversible processes.
3.1.7 Equilibrium and Steady State
Equilibrium: A system exists in a state of equilibrium if its macroscopic properties such as temperature, pressure, volume,
and mass remain constant without the help of an external source.
Steady state: When the macroscopic properties of a system are kept constant with the help of an external source the system
is said to be in a steady state.
Ethanol kept in a closed container having adiabatic walls is an example of a system at equilibrium. Initially some
ethanol in the liquid state evaporates and goes to the vapour state. After some time equilibrium is attained between the
liquid and vapour phases of ethanol. The volume of ethanol, its pressure and the temperature inside the container do not
change with time.
An example of steady state is the water taken in a tank that has an inlet and an outlet of water. The rate at which the
water flows in is maintained equal to the rate at which the water flows out. As a result the level of water in the tank does not
change with time.
Various types of equilibrium are as follows:
Thermal equilibrium: Temperature of each part of the system is the same.
Mechanical equilibrium: The external forces on the system are equal to internal forces in the system. That is, there are no
unbalanced forces in the system.
The pressure acting on the system is equal to the pressure exerted by the system.
Chemical equilibrium: The composition of each part of the system is same and does not change with time.
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it is in thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium. Even
if one of the equilibrium is not achieved the system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium.
http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=6225&chapterid=6984 3/9
4/18/2017 Thermodynamics
Intensive properties are those properties that do not depend upon the size of the system. These properties are not added
up to get the total value of a given property of the system. They have the same value in all the parts of the system. Some of
the important intensive properties are: pressure, temperature, density, concentration, mole fraction, refractive index, surface
tension, viscosity, and specific heat capacity.
Let a container containing an ideal gas be divided into four compartments namely A, B, C, D as shown in Fig. 3.2.
V = VA+ VB+ VC+ VD
The total amount of the gas is
n = nA+ nB+ nC+ nD
However, the total pressure of the container is not equal to the sum of the pressure of each compartment. Similarly, the
temperature of the container is also not equal to the sum of the temperatures of each compartment. Thus, it is seen that the
volume and amount depend upon the size of the system while temperature and pressure do not depend upon the size of the
system.
Another illustration of extensive and intensive properties is of the 1 mol dm–3sodium chloride solution taken in a one litre
flask. This solution is divided unequally among four students and each student measures the mass, volume, density,
temperature, surface tension and viscosity of the solution. What is the expected result?
All the four students will report almost the same values of density, temperature, surface tension, and viscosity of the
solution within experimental error. The mass and the volume of the solutions will be different but the volumes of solutions
of each student will add up to one litre. Again it is observed that the intensive properties, that is, density, temperature,
surface tension, and viscosity of the solution do not depend upon the size of the system while the extensive properties
depend upon the size.
List of some Extensive and Intensive Properties
Extensive Properties mass, volume, amount, heat capacity, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy, free energy
Intensive Properties pressure, temperature, density, surface tension, viscosity, refractive index, molarity,
molar volume, specific heat capacity, molar heat capacity, molar energy
3.1.8 Intensive and Extensive Properties
The following rules help in determining whether a given property is extensive or intensive. These are based on the facts that
many of the physical properties are related to other physical properties.
i. The sum of two extensive properties is an extensive property.
ii. Dividing an extensive property by another extensive property results in an intensive property. For example, molarity
= amount of subtance/volume of solution, in litres.
Here amount and volume are extensive properties while molarity is intensive property. Other examples are
Pressure = Force/ Area
Density = Mass / Volume
All the molar properties are intensive properties.
iii. The product of an intensive property and an extensive property is an extensive property and the product of two
extensive properties is also an extensive property.
3.1.9 State Variables
The state of the system depends upon the pressure (p or P), temperature (T), volume (V) and the amount of substance
(number of moles, n) in the system. The state of the system changes when one or more of these variables change. Therefore,
these variables are known as state variables. It is generally possible to set up an algebraic equation showing the
relationship between the defining variables of state of the system. Such equation or equations are called equations of state
for the system. For example, for an ideal gas the equation of state is:
PV=nRT
3.1.10 State Property or State Function
http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=6225&chapterid=6984 4/9
4/18/2017 Thermodynamics
The property of a system that depends on the state variables is known as a state property. The change in the state property
does not depend upon how the process is carried out. That is, the value of a state property depends only on the state of the
system and not on the process by which this state is reached. A function that depends only on the state variables is known as
a state function.
Thermodynamic properties like of a system internal energy (U), enthalpy (H), entropy (S), Helmholtz energy(A) and
free energy (G) change with the change in variables like temperature, pressure, volume and amount of substance in the
system. The changes in these properties depend upon the initial and final states of the system. They do not depend upon the
path followed during the change. Therefore, these thermodynamic properties are also state properties or state functions.
Characteristics of state functions: Let z be a state function that depends upon two variables x and y. This is written as
z = f (x,y)
The various characteristics of state functions are as follows:
i. State functions can be differentiated.
ii. They have exact differentials, that is, they can be integrated within the limits. ∆z =
iii. The order of differentiation of z with respect to x and y is immaterial. This may be explained as follows. The
total change in z is represented by dz. The change in z takes place due to change in x (dx) and change in y (dy).
It is written as
Here,
= rate of change of z with change in x when y is kept constant = partial
derivative of z with respect to x at constant y
= rate of change of z with change in y when x is kept constant = partial
derivative of z with respect to y at constant x
dx = infinitesimal change in x
dy = infinitesimal change in y
If z is state function and dz is exact differential then the following differentials are equal.
This means that, .
It can also be written as
The above equality is known as Euler’s theorem of exactness. If this relation is valid for a function then that function
is a state function.
Some other characteristics of state functions are:
iv.
v. If the subscripts are the same the partial differentials can be multiplied.
http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=6225&chapterid=6984 5/9
4/18/2017 Thermodynamics
However,
vi. For any three state functions x, y, z, the cyclic rule is,
iv. In a cyclic process the total differential of a state function is equal to zero.
Example
Show that the volume of an ideal gas is a state function.
Solution:
Volume depends upon temperature and pressure. This can be written as
V = f (T,P) ....(3.1)
The change in volume, dV, due to change in temperature, dT and change in pressure, dP is given by the equation,
....(3.2)
Here,
= total change in volume due to change in temperature dT and = total change in volume due to
change in pressure dP.
If V is a state function dV must be exact differential, that is, the Euler’s theorem of exactness is valid.
Therefore,
For an ideal gas,
PV = nRT ....(3.3)
Differentiation of Eq.(3.3) with respect to P at constant T gives
However, = 0, therefore, = 0
or
Substituting the expression of V in terms of T and P in the above equation we get
....(3.4)
Differentiating Eq. (3.4) with respect to T at constant P we get the second derivative
....(3.5)
Differentiating Eq. (3.3) with respect to T at constant P we get
....(3.6)
http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=6225&chapterid=6984 6/9
4/18/2017 Thermodynamics
Differentiating Eq. (3.6) with respect to P at constant T we get the second derivative
....(3.7)
Comparing Eqs. (3.5) and (3.7) it is seen that the right hand sides are equal, therefore, the left hand sides must also be
equal. Hence, it is proved that
Therefore, dV is an exact differential and V is a state function.
We know from our experience that change in volume of an ideal gas during a process is independent of the path followed. If
the pressure and temperature of an ideal gas are changed then the final volume can be calculated. The change in pressure
and temperature can be carried out in three ways such that in all the three cases the final state is the same. It can be shown
by the following calculations that the final volume is the same in all the three cases:
3.1.11 Inexact (Path) Function
It is a thermodynamic property that depends upon how the process is carried out, that is, it depends upon the path taken by
the system during the thermodynamic process.
Work and heat are path functions. Distance travelled is a path function while displacement is a state function.
Path functions are inexact differentials, that is, they cannot be integrated.
There is no such thing as initial work and final work, therefore, w1 and w2 do not mean anything. w is the work done when
the system goes from an initial state to the final state. Similarly, since q is a path function we only talk about the total heat
exchange between the system and the surroundings during a process and not the initial heat and the final heat. dq and dw
where ever they are mentioned do not mean change in heat or change in work. dq stands for small amount of heat
exchanged by the system. dw denotes small amount of work done.
The correct symbol for small amount of heat exchanged is đq and for small amount of work done is đw, where, đ represents
an inexact differential. However, in this book we will use dw and dq as symbols.
Example
Check the following equations for exactness.
i. dK = (RT/P)dP + RdT
ii. dΦ = (x2 –y2)dx + 2xydy
iii. dz = xy2dx + yx2dy
iv. dV = (R/P)dT –(RT/P2)dP
Solution:
The equation of the type dz = Mdx + Ndy is exact if
http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=6225&chapterid=6984 7/9
4/18/2017 Thermodynamics
i. dK = (RT/P)dP + RdT
Here M = and N =R
dK = MdP + NdT
For this equation to be exact
=
= = 0
Since ≠ , dK is not an exact differential
ii. dΦ = (x2–y2)dx + 2xydy
M = (x2–y2) and N = 2xy
Differentiating M with respect to y at constant x and N with respect to x at constant y we get,
= 2y and = 2x
Since ≠ dΦ is not exact differential
iii. dz = xy2dx + yx2dy
M = xy2 and N = yx2
Differentiating M with respect to y at constant x and N with respect to x at constant y we get,
= 2xy and = 2xy
Since = , dz is exact differential
iv. dV = (R/P)dT –(RT/P2)dP
M = R/P and N = (RT/P2)
=
Since = , dV is an exact differential
3.1.12 Laws of Thermodynamics
These laws of thermodynamics are based upon observations. The laws were numbered as they were stated. The last law to
be given was the zeroth law. Since it is the most fundamental, it should come before first law and as zero comes before one
it was named zeroth law.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then A and B
will be in thermal equilibrium when with each other placed. That is, if the temperature of system A and of system C, are
equal and the temperature of system B, and of system C, are equal then, the temperature of system will be same as that of
system B i.e.,
If TA = TC and TB = TC, then TA = TB
http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=6225&chapterid=6984 8/9
4/18/2017 Thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics: ΔU = q + w
The change in internal energy (ΔU) of the system is equal to the heat exchanged (q) by the system and the work done (w)
on/by the system. The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.
Second law of thermodynamics: It is impossible to transfer heat from a colder system to a warmer system without other
changes occurring simultaneously in the two systems or in their environment. The state of maximum entropy is the most
stable state for an isolated system.
Third law of Thermodynamics: The entropy of a pure and perfectly crystalline solid is zero at zero Kelvin of temperature.
These laws and their applications will be discussed in details in the subsequent sections of this unit.
http://vle.du.ac.in/mod/book/print.php?id=6225&chapterid=6984 9/9