SKYSCRAPERS

Seminar Report

On

“SKYSCRAPERS”

Presented By

CHANDAN M

USN: 4JC05CV008

8 t h Semester, Civil Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SRI JAYACHAMARAJENDRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum)

MYSORE – 570 006

2009

“SKYSCRAPERS”
Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 1
SKYSCRAPERS

A report submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of Degree in

Bachelor of Engineering in Civil of
Visveswaraiah Technological University, Belgaum

Presented By

CHANDAN M

USN: 4JC05CV008

8 t h Semester, Civil Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SRI JAYACHAMARAJENDRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum)

MYSORE – 570 006

2009

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 2

SKYSCRAPERS

SRI JAYACHAMARAJENDRA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, MYSORE–06

(Affiliated to VTU, Belgaum)

2009

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr.CHANDAN M , bearing USN: 4JC05CV008 has successfully presented a
seminar and submitted the seminar report on “SKYSCRAPERS” in partial fulfillment of the
curriculum prescribed for VIII Semester B.E. (Civil) by VTU, Belgaum.

Examiners Head of the Department

Dr. SYED SHAKEEB UR RAHMAN

1. Dept. of Civil Engineering,

2. S.J.C.E, Mysore.

3.

Place: Mysore

Date :

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 3
SKYSCRAPERS

The satisfaction that accompanies the successful completion of any task would be incomplete
without mentioning of the people who made it possible. Many responsible for the knowledge and
experience gained during the work course.

I would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and indebthness to

Sri G.P. Chandradara, and Sri S.Raviraj Selection Grade lecturers, Civil Engineering Department, S. J.
College of Engineering, Mysore, for his constant encouragement, guidance and inspiration, which
enabled me to complete this seminar work.

I would also like to express my gratefulness towards all the faculty members, Department
of Civil Engineering, SJCE, Mysore for their timely suggestions.
I am thankful to Dr. Syed Shakeeb-Ur-Rahman, Professor and Head, Department of Civil
Engineering, for bringing excellent academic climate to finish my work successfully.

Last but not the least, I express my deepest sense of gratitude for the inspiration, enthusiasm and
help given by my parents and friends.

CHANDAN M

4JC05CV008

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 4

SKYSCRAPERS

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 06
2. SUSTAINABILITY 07
3. CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS IN SKYSCRAPERS 08
4. SKYSCRAPERS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION 10
5. BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 10
6. LOADING AND VIBRATION 10
7. STEEL FRAME 11
8. DESIGN 12
9. THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 13
10. QUALITY CONTROL 17
11. GIANT GIRDER GRIDS 17
12. MAKING IT FUNCTIONAL 18
13. WIND RESISTANCE 20
14. FACTORS FOR STABILITY 21
15. WHAT STRUCTURAL DAMAGE CAN MEAN ? 21
16. ELEVATORS 22
17. CONCLUSION 22
18. REFERENCE 23

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 5

SKYSCRAPERS

1. INTRODUCTION:

The word "SKYSCRAPER" originally was a nautical term referring to a tall

mast or its main sail on a sailing ship. The term was first applied to buildings in the
late 19th century as a result of public amazement at the tall buildings being built
in Chicago and New York City. The traditional definition of a skyscraper began
with the "first skyscraper", a steel-framed ten-storey building. Chicago's now
demolished ten-storey steel-framed Home Insurance Building (1885) is generally
accepted as the "first skyscraper".

The structural definition of the word skyscraper was refined later by

architectural historians, based on engineering developments of the 1880s that
had enabled construction of tall multi-storey buildings. This definition was based
on the steel skeleton—-as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry,
which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicago's Monadnock Building.
Philadelphia's City Hall, completed in 1901, still holds claim as the world's tallest
load-bearing masonry structure at 167 m (548 ft). The steel frame developed in
stages of increasing self-sufficiency, with several buildings in Chicago and New
York advancing the technology that allowed the steel frame to carry a building on
its own. Today, however, many of the tallest skyscrapers are built almost entirely
with reinforced concrete. Pumps and storage tanks maintain water pressure at
the top of skyscrapers.

A loose convention in the United States and Europe now draws the lower
limit of a skyscraper at 150 meters (500 ft). A skyscraper taller than 300 meters
(984 ft) may be referred to as supertall. Shorter buildings are still sometimes
referred to as skyscrapers if they appear to dominate their surroundings.

The somewhat arbitrary term skyscraper should not be confused with the
slightly less arbitrary term high-rise, defined by the Emporis Standards Committee
as "...a multi-storey structure with at least 12 floors or 35 meters (115 feet) in
height."Some structural engineers define a high-rise as any vertical construction
for which wind is a more significant load factor than earthquake or weight. Note
that this criterion fits not only high rises but some other tall structures, such as
towers.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 6

SKYSCRAPERS

2. SUSTAINABILITY:

The skyscraper as a concept is a product of the industrialized age, made

possible by cheap energy and raw materials. The amount of steel, concrete and
glass needed to construct a skyscraper is vast, and these materials represent a
great deal of embodied energy. Tall skyscrapers are very heavy, which means that
they must be built on a sturdier foundation than would be required for shorter,
lighter buildings. Building materials must also be lifted to the top of a skyscraper
during construction, requiring more energy than would be necessary at lower
heights.

Furthermore, a skyscraper consumes a lot of electricity because potable

and non-potable water must be pumped to the highest occupied floors,
skyscrapers are usually designed to be mechanically ventilated, elevators are
generally used instead of stairs, and natural lighting cannot be utilized in rooms
far from the windows and the windowless spaces such as elevators, bathrooms
and stairwells.

Despite these costs, the size of skyscrapers allows for high-density work
and living spaces, reducing the amount of land given over to human development.
Mass transit and commercial transport are economically and environmentally
more efficient when serving high-density development than suburban or rural
development. Also, the total energy expended towards waste disposal and
climate control is relatively lower for a given number of people occupying a
skyscraper than that same number of people occupying modern housing.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 7

SKYSCRAPERS

3. CONCRETE FOUNDATIONS IN SKYSCRAPERS:

Due to the great height of skyscrapers, huge foundations are needed to
support these structures.  First, a large hole is dug into the ground to reach a
point of stable soil (often bedrock).  After some stability is reached, large steal
footings are placed, and from these, vertical steal beams are placed along with a
network of rebar.  This is an image in actual proportion; the foundation of the CN
Tower is 50 ft (15m) deep, to support the 1,815 ft (553m) structure.  The
foundation itself is almost five floors deep!  Most house foundations are only one
to two feet deep.  Compare that to a skyscraper!
 
 

 
Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 8
SKYSCRAPERS

But this is nothing compared to the worlds deepest foundation!  The Petronas
Towers has a foundation that is 394 ft (120 m) deep!
 

 
The unusually deep foundation needed for the Petronas Towers was because of
the areas bedrock.  The bedrock in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia is quite deep, causing
many headaches for construction companies.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 9

SKYSCRAPERS

4. SKYSCRAPERS DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION:

The design and construction of skyscrapers involves creating safe, habitable

spaces in very tall buildings. The buildings must support their weight, resist wind
and earthquakes, and protect occupants from fire. Yet they must also be
conveniently accessible, even on the upper floors, and provide utilities and a
comfortable climate for the occupants. The problems posed in skyscraper design
are considered among the most complex encountered given the balances
required between economics, engineering, and construction management.

5. BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

Good structural design is of importance in most building design, but

especially among skyscrapers since even a small likelihood of catastrophic failure
is unacceptable given the number of individuals served by skyscrapers and the
resulting price of failure. This presents a paradox to civil engineers: the only way
to assure a lack of failure is to test for all modes of failure, in both the laboratory
and the real world. The only way to know of all modes of failure is to learn from
previous failures. In this way, no engineer can be absolutely sure that a given
structure will resist all loadings that could cause failure, but can only be sure, that
given large enough margins of safety, that a sufficiently small percentage of the
time will a failure ever occur. When buildings do fail, engineers question if the
failure was due to some lack of foresight on their part or some unknowable factor
that would have never been expected to have been designed for.

6. LOADING AND VIBRATION :

The load a skyscraper experiences is largely from the force of the building
material itself. In most building designs, the weight of the structure is much larger
than the weight of the material that it will support beyond its own weight. In
technical terms, the dead load, the load of the structure, is larger than the live
load, the weight of things in the structure (people, furniture, vehicles, etc). As
such, the amount of structural material required within the lower levels of a
skyscraper will be much larger than the material required within higher levels.
This is not always visually apparent, or borne out visually.

The wind loading on a skyscraper is also considerable. In fact, the lateral

wind load imposed on super-tall structures is generally the governing factor in the
Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 10
SKYSCRAPERS

structural design. Wind pressure increases with height, so for very tall buildings,
the loads associated with wind are larger than dead or live loads.

7. STEEL FRAME:
  When one thinks of a skyscraper, the steel frame design comes to mind.  This
design is characterized by a large steel box, containing smaller steel boxes inside. 
This 3D grid is simple and efficient for most low-rises, but has its’ drawbacks for
high-rise structures.  As the building's height increases, the space between steel
beams must decrease to compensate for the extra weight, resulting in less office
space and the need for more material.

Tube Frame:
 

The tube design is a recent innovation used to maximize floor space and
increase resistance to lateral force in any direction.  The buildings skin (outside)
consists of closely aligned supporting columns.  This design only leaves about one-
half of the building’s exterior left for windows.  Depending on the designer’s
outlook, this can be an advantage or disadvantage.  The decreased window space
helps those who suffer acrophobia (a fear of heights) comfortably occupy the
space; however, it decreases the visibility and openness offered by other designs.

Concrete Core: 

  This is the most common design for modern skyscrapers as it is fast to build
and provides a strong center.  All the utilities, elevators, and stairwells are
centralized in this design, making it easier for building modifications and repair. 
This design can be dangerous.  If a part of the core is damaged, everything above
that section will be cut off from ground access.  This happened in the WTC during
the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, making it impossible for many people to
escape the burning towers.

 
Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 11
SKYSCRAPERS

8. DESIGN:

Designing a low-rise building involves creating a structure that will support its
own weight (called the dead load) and the weight of the people and furniture that
it will contain (the live load). For a skyscraper, the sideways force of wind affects
the structure more than the weight of the building and its contents. The designer
must ensure that the building will not be toppled by a strong wind, and also that
it will not sway enough to cause the occupants physical or emotional discomfort.

Each skyscraper design is unique. Major structural elements that may be

used alone or in combination include a steel skeleton hidden behind non-load-
bearing curtain walls, a reinforced concrete skeleton that is in-filled with cladding
panels to form the exterior walls, a central concrete core (open column) large
enough to contain elevator shafts and other mechanical components, and an
array of support columns around the perimeter of the building that are connected
by horizontal beams to one another and to the core.

Because each design is innovative, models of proposed super tall buildings

are tested in wind tunnels to determine the effect of high wind on them, and also
the effect on surrounding buildings of wind patterns caused by the new building.
If tests show the building will sway excessively in strong winds,

An example of a skyscraper ground floor design and building frame.

designers may add mechanical devices that counteract or restrict motion.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 12
SKYSCRAPERS

In addition to the superstructure, designers must also plan appropriate

mechanical systems such as elevators that move people quickly and comfortably,
air circulation systems, and plumbing.

9. THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS:

Each skyscraper is a unique structure designed to conform to physical

constraints imposed by factors like geology and climate, meet the needs of the
tenants, and satisfy the aesthetic objectives of the owner and the architect. The
construction process for each building is also unique.

The following steps give a general idea of the most common construction
techniques.

The substructure:
 Construction usually begins with digging a pit that will hold the foundation.
The depth of the pit depends on how far down the bedrock lies and how many
basement levels the building will have. To prevent movement of the
surrounding soil and to seal out water from around the foundation site, a
diaphragm wall may be constructed before the pit is dug. This is done by
digging a deep, narrow trench around the perimeter of the planned pit; as the
trench is dug, it is filled with slurry (watery clay) to keep its walls from
collapsing. When a section of trench reaches the desired depth, a cage of
reinforcing steel is lowered into it. Concrete is then pumped into the trench,
displacing the lighter slurry. The slurry is recovered and used again in other
sections of the trench.

 In some cases, bedrock lies close to the surface. The soil on top of the bedrock
is removed, and enough of the bedrock surface is removed to form a smooth,
level platform on which to construct the building's foundation. Footings (holes
into which the building's support columns can be anchored) are blasted or
drilled in the bedrock. Steel or reinforced concrete columns are placed in the
footings.
Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 13
SKYSCRAPERS

 If the bedrock lies very deep, piles (vertical beams) are sunk through the soil
until they are embedded in the bedrock. One technique involves driving steel
piles into place by repeatedly dropping a heavy weight on their tops. Another
technique involves drilling shafts through the soil and into the bedrock,
inserting steel reinforcing rods, and then filling the shafts with concrete.

A. Diaphragm wall. B. Footing. C. One type of foundation for a skyscraper

uses steel piles to secure the foundation to the ground. D. The slip form
method of pouring concrete.

 A foundation platform of reinforced concrete is poured on top of the support

columns.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 14

SKYSCRAPERS

The superstructure and core:

Once construction of a skyscraper is underway, work on several phases of the

structure proceeds simultaneously. For example, by the time the support columns
are several stories high, workers begin building floors for the lower stories. As the
columns reach higher, the flooring crews move to higher stories, as well, and
finishing crews begin working on the lowest levels.

Overlapping these phases not only makes the most efficient use of time,
but it also ensures that the structure remains stable during construction.

 If steel columns and cross-bracing are used in the building, each beam is
lifted into place by a crane. Initially, the crane sits on the ground; later it
may be positioned on the highest existing level of the steel skeleton itself.
Skilled workers either bolt or weld the end of the beam into place (rivets
have not been used since the 1950s). The beam is then wrapped with an
insulating jacket to keep it from overheating and being weakened in the
event of a fire. As an alternative heat-protection measure in some
buildings, the steel beams consist of hollow tubes; when the superstructure
is completed, the tubes are filled with water, which is circulated
continuously throughout the lifetime of the building.

 Concrete is often used for constructing a building's core, and it may also be
used to construct support columns. A technique called "slip forming" is
commonly used. Wooden forms of the desired shape are attached to a
steel frame, which is connected to a climbing jack that grips a vertical rod.
Workers prepare a section of reinforcing steel that is taller than the
wooden forms. Then they begin pouring concrete into the forms. As the
concrete is poured, the climbing jack slowly and continuously raises the
formwork. The composition of the concrete mixture and the rate of
climbing are coordinated so that the concrete at the lower range of the
form has set before the form rises above it. As the process continues,
workers extend the reinforcing steel grid that extends above the formwork
and add extensions to the vertical rod that the climbing jack grips. In this
way, the entire concrete column is built as a continuous vertical element
without joints.
Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 15
SKYSCRAPERS

 In a steel-skeleton building, floors are constructed on the layers of

horizontal bracing. In other building designs, floors are supported by
horizontal steel beams attached to the building's core and/or support
columns. Steel decking (panels of thin, corrugated steel) is laid on the
beams and welded in place. A layer of concrete, about 2-4 in (5-10 cm)
thick, is poured on the decking to complete the floor.

The exterior:
 In most tall buildings, the weight of the structure and its contents is borne
by the support columns and the building's core. The exterior walls
themselves merely enclose the structure. They are constructed by attaching
panels of such materials as glass, metal, and stone to the building's
framework. A common technique is to bolt them to angle brackets secured
to floor slabs or support columns.

Finishing:
 When a story of the building has been enclosed by exterior walls, it is ready
for interior finishing. This includes installation of such elements as electrical
wires, telephone wires, plumbing pipes, interior walls, ceiling panels,
bathroom fixtures, lighting fixtures, and sprinkler systems for fire control. It
also includes installation of mechanical components like elevators and
systems for air circulation, cooling, and heating.

 When the entire superstructure has been completed, the top of the
building is finished by installing a roof. This may be built much like a floor,
and then waterproofed with a layer of rubber or plastic before being
covered with an attractive, weather—resistant layer of tiles or metal.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 16

SKYSCRAPERS

10. QUALITY CONTROL:

Various factors are taken into consideration when assuring quality control.
Because of the huge scale of skyscrapers, a small positioning error at the base will
be magnified when extended to the roof. In addition to normal surveying
instruments, unusual devices like global positioning system (GPS) sensors and
aircraft bombsights may be used to verify the placement and alignment of
structural members.

Soil sensors around the building site are used to detect any unexpected earth
movement caused by the construction activity.

11. GIANT GIRDER GRIDS:

The central support structure of a skyscraper is its steel skeleton. Metal

beams are riveted end to end to form vertical columns. At each floor level, these
vertical columns are connected to horizontal girder beams. Many buildings also
have diagonal beams running between the girders, for extra structural support.

In this giant three-dimensional grid -- called the super structure -- all the
weight in the building gets transferred directly to the vertical columns. This
concentrates the downward force caused by gravity into the relatively small areas
where the columns rest at the building's base. This concentrated force is then
spread out in the substructure under the building.

In a typical skyscraper substructure, each vertical column sits on a spread

footing. The column rests directly on a cast-iron plate, which sits on top of a
grillage. The grillage is basically a stack of horizontal steel beams, lined side-by-side in two or
more layers (see diagram, below). The grillage rests on a thick concrete pad poured directly onto
the hard clay under the ground. Once the steel is in place, the entire structure is covered with
concrete.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 17

SKYSCRAPERS

The pieces of a skyscraper's spread

footing

This structure expands out lower in the ground, the same way a pyramid
expands out as you go down. This distributes the concentrated weight from the
columns over a wide surface. Ultimately, the entire weight of the building rests
directly on the hard clay material under the earth. In very heavy buildings, the
base of the spread footings rest on massive concrete piers that extend all the way
down to the earth's bedrock layer.

One major advantage of the steel skeleton structure is that the outer walls
-- called the curtain wall -- need only to support their own weight. This lets
architects open the building up as much as they want, in stark contrast to the
thick walls in traditional building construction. In many skyscrapers, especially
ones built in the 1950s and '60s, the curtain walls are made almost entirely of
glass, giving the occupants a spectacular view of their city.

12. MAKING IT FUNCTIONAL:

In the last section, we saw that new iron and steel manufacturing processes opened up the
possibility of towering buildings. But this is only half the picture. Before high-rise skyscrapers could
become a reality, engineers had to make them practical.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 18

SKYSCRAPERS

Once you get more than five or six floors, stairs become a fairly inconvenient
technology. Skyscrapers would never have worked without the coincident
emergence of elevator technology. Ever since the first passenger elevator was
installed in New York's Haughwout Department Store in 1857, elevator shafts
have been a major part of skyscraper design. In most skyscrapers, the elevator
shafts make up the building's central core.

Figuring out the elevator structure is a balancing act of sorts. As you add
more floors to a building, you increase the building's occupancy. When you have
more people, you obviously need more elevators or the lobby will fill up with
people waiting in line. But elevator shafts take up a lot of room, so you lose floor
space for every elevator you add. To make more room for people, you have to
add more floors. Deciding on the right number of floors and elevators is one of
the most important parts of designing a building.

Building safety is also a major consideration in design. Skyscrapers

wouldn't have worked so well without the advent of new fire-resistant building
materials in the 1800s. These days, skyscrapers are also outfitted with
sophisticated sprinkler equipment that puts out most fires before they spread
very far. This is extremely important when you have hundreds of people living and
working thousands of feet above a safe exit.

Architects also pay careful attention to the comfort of the building's

occupants. The Empire State Building, for example, was designed so its occupants
would always be within 30 feet (ft) of a window. A building is only successful
when the architects have focused not only on structural stability, but also
usability and occupant satisfaction.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 19

SKYSCRAPERS

13. WIND RESISTANCE:

In addition to the vertical force of gravity, skyscrapers also have to deal with
the horizontal force of wind. Most skyscrapers can easily move several feet in
either direction, like a swaying tree, without damaging their structural integrity.
The main problem with this horizontal movement is how it affects the people
inside. If the building moves a substantial horizontal distance, the occupants will
definitely feel it.

The most basic method for controlling horizontal sway is to simply tighten up the
structure. At the point where the horizontal girders attach to the vertical column, the construction
crew bolts and welds them on the top and bottom, as well as the side. This makes the entire steel
super structure move more as one unit, like a pole, as opposed to a flexible skeleton.

For taller skyscrapers, tighter connections don't really do the trick. To keep
these buildings from swaying heavily, engineers have to construct especially
strong cores through the center of the building. In the Empire State Building, the
Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers from that era, the area around the central
elevator shafts is fortified by a sturdy steel truss, braced with diagonal beams.
Most recent buildings have one or more concrete cores built into the center of
the building.

Making buildings more rigid also braces them against earthquake damage.
Basically, the entire building moves with the horizontal vibrations of the earth, so
the steel skeleton isn't twisted and strained. While this helps protect the
structure of the skyscraper, it can be pretty rough on the occupants, and it can
also cause a lot of damage to loose furniture and equipment. Several companies
are developing new technology that will counteract the horizontal movement to
dampen the force of vibration.

Some buildings already use advanced wind-compensating dampers. The

Citicorp Center in New York, for example, uses a tuned mass damper. In this
complex system, oil hydraulic systems push a 400-ton concrete weight back and
forth on one of the top floors, shifting the weight of the entire building from side
to side. A sophisticated computer system carefully monitors how the wind is
Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 20
SKYSCRAPERS

shifting the building and moves the weight accordingly. Some similar systems shift
the building's weight based on the movement of giant pendulums.

14. FACTORS FOR STABILITY:

A structure is a body that will resist being deformed by external forces

except for that due to the elasticity of the material (Hutchinson & Karsnitz,
1994). Therefore strength and stability are two important factors to be
considered in designing structures. Structural damage prevention is a major
concern for architects and engineers because it is hard to predict with
certainty how forces will act on a structure; for example, several tornadoes
may hit a building several times in one year, at different speeds and from
different directions. Thus, the effect on the structure will always be different.
However, if we could predict the direction and magnitude of the force every
single time a tornado hit, then we could also predict the damage that would be
done to the structure.

15. WHAT STRUCTURAL DAMAGE CAN MEAN ?

the tragic events in September 11 to remind us what structural damage

can mean for the people inside and outside large structures. The underlying
principles of engineering are responsible for both the resistance and the
weakness of the towering buildings.

The strength of the materials, as well as the architectural integrity are both
required to produce a structure that can handle stresses even beyond its
perceived limits. Applied loads or forces that press upon a solid structure are
distributed throughout the body of the structure. This is how large skyscrapers
survive winds and the ravages of the natural elements. The strength of a
structure is not only the result of the materials used, but also of how the
different structural systems are designed for stability.

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 21

SKYSCRAPERS

16. ELEVATORS:

fig. elevators

Many improvements have been made to the elevator specifically in concern to

speed and safety. Today’s elevators can travel up to 25 mph and some can even
hold up to 60 people! With skyscrapers growing taller each year, elevators will
have to keep up.

17. CONCLUSION:

Newer and improved methods of construction materials especially iron and

steel and innovative methods in construction catalyzed the skyscrapers
construction.

Building more and more skyscrapers would add beauty and enchanting
view to the city .But meanwhile utmost care should be taken while constructing
and after it, otherwise it may result in huge loss of both human lives and
property.

In future skyscrapers would become the part of every metropolitan city.

Although height may not be the problem the, but still sky is the limit.

18.REFERENCE
Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 22
SKYSCRAPERS

http://www.loa.org/images/pdf/Skyscraper.pdf

http://skyscraperpage.com/

http://www.pdf-search-engine.com/sky-scraper-pdf.html

http://www.theskyscrapers.org/stuff/contentmgr/files/6a25356ff52b03d4f65e0af
628e19993/pdf/the_skyscraper.pdf

http://skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?1178316

Department of CIVIL Engg, SJCE, MYSORE. 2009 23