Principles of Growth and Development

1. Growth and development are continuous processes from conception

until death.
2. Growth and development proceed in an orderly sequence.
3. Different children pass through the predictable stages sat different
rates.
4. All body system does not develop at the same rate.
5. Development is cephalocaudal.
6. Development proceeds from proximal to distal body parts.
7. Development proceeds from gross to refined skills.
8. There is an optimum time for initiation of experiences of learning.
9. Neonatal reflexes must be lost before development can proceed.
10. A great deal of skill and behavior is learned by
practice.

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

sAccording to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of
five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to
influence behavior later in life.

Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but also one of the
most controversial. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of
childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on
certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the
driving force behind behavior.
If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy
personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur.
A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is
fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation
through smoking, drinking, or eating.

The Oral Stage

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for
eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities
such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers
(who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense of trust and
comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less
dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems
with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.

The Anal Stage

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents
approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and
productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis
for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need
during this stage. Some parents' instead punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If
parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or destructive
personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that
an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid,
and obsessive.
The Phallic Stage

During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals.
Children also discover the differences between males and females. Freud also believed
that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus
complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to
replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for
these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings experienced
by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child realizes begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis
envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage.
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and
demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of
inferiority because they cannot give birth to children.

The Latent Period

During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of
the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time
that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships,
hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it
is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage
is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

The Genital Stage

During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a

strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on
individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. If the other
stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced,
warm, and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life
areas.
 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known
theories of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that
personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages,
Erikson’s theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.

One of the main elements of Erikson’s psychosocial stage theory is the develoment of
ego identity.1 Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social
interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly changing due to new
experience and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. In addition to
ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence also motivates behaviors
and actions. Each stage in Erikson’s theory is concerned with becoming competent in an
area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which he
sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality.2 If the stage is managed poorly, the
person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.

In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point
in development. In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential
for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

• The first stage of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development occurs between

birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
• Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child’s caregivers.
• If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the
world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop
trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

• The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place

during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control.
• Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson
believe that learning to control one’s body functions leads to a feeling of control
and a sense of independence.
 • Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
• Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

• During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over
the world through directing play and other social interaction.
• Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others.
Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt and
lack of initiative.3

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

• This stage covers the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
• Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.
• Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be
successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

• During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a

sense of self.
• Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires
will insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation

• This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring
personal relationships.
• Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships
with other people. Those who are successful at this step will develop relationships
that are committed and secure.
• Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important to developing
intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of
self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer
emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

• During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and
family.
• Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to
the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain
this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

• This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
• Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been
wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings
of bitterness and despair.
• Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a
general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when
confronting death.

Jean Piaget’s Background

Jean Piaget was born in Switzerland in 1896. After receiving his doctoral degree
at age 22, Piaget formally began a career that would have a profound impact on both
psychology and education. After working with Alfred Binet, Piaget developed an interest
in the intellectual development of children. Based upon his observations, he concluded
that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert
Einstein called Piaget’s discovery “so simple only a genius could have thought of it.”

Piaget’s stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive

development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget’s view, early
cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses into
changes in mental operations.

Key Concepts

Schemas – A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to
interpret and understand the world. In Piaget’s view, a schema includes both a category
of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this
new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas. For
example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child’s
sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small,
furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. The
child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to
include this new information.

Assimilation – The process of taking in new information into our previously existing
schema’s is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective, because we tend
to modify experience or information somewhat to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In
the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it “dog” is an example of assimilating the
animal into the child’s dog schema.

Accommodation – Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our

existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation.
Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this
process.

Equilibration – Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between
assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called
equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is
important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and
changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps
explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

Characteristics of the Sensorimotor Stage:

The first stage of Piaget’s theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is
centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage,
an infant’s knowledge of the world is limited to their sensory perceptions and motor
activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.
Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with, such as looking, sucking,
grasping, and listening, to learn more about the environment.

Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage:

The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate substages that are
characterized by the development of a new skill.

Reflexes (0-1 month):

During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through
inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.
Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):

This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a
child may such his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action.
These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.

Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):

During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to
intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For
example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.

Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):

During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The child
may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin exploring
the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The
understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize
certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle
will make a sound when shaken.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):

Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth

substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting
attention from a caregiver.

Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):

Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in

the final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards
understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage:

The preoperational stage occurs between ages two and six. Language
development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage
do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are
unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.
During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at using
symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is
able to use an object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse.
Role playing also becomes important during the preoperational stage. Children often play
the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor," and many others.

Egocentrism:

Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study the mental
abilities of children. One of the famous techniques egocentrism involved using a three-
dimensional display of a mountain scene. Children are asked to choose a picture that
showed the scene they had observed. Most children are able to do this with little
difficulty. Next, children are asked to select a picture showing what someone else would
have observed when looking at the mountain from a different viewpoint.
Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the
mountain scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are
unable to take on another person's perspective.

Conservation:

Another well-known experiment involves demonstrating a child's understanding

of conservation. In one conservation experiment, equal amounts of liquid are poured into
two identical containers. The liquid in one container is then poured into a different
shaped cup, such as a tall and thin cup, or a short and wide cup. Children are then asked
which cup holds the most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid amounts were equal,
children almost always choose the cup that appears fuller.
Piaget conducted a number of similar experiments on conservation of number, length,
mass, weight, volume, and quantity. Piaget found that few children showed any
understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.

Characteristics of Concrete Operations:

The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until
approximately age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of
mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have
difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

Logic:

Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good
at the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to
a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive
logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific
event.

Reversibility:

One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of

reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able
to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child
might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and
that a dog is an animal.

Characteristics of the Formal Operational Stage:

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve to and lasts into
adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.
Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge
during this stage.

Logic:

Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal
operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to
determine a specific outcome. This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and
is often required in science and mathematics.

Abstract Thought:

While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the
ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage.
Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible
outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long-term
planning.
Problem-Solving: In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems.
During the formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a
logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of
cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to solving a
problem.
 Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
Moral development is a topic of interest in both psychology and education.
Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg modified and expanded upon Piaget's work to form
a theory that explained the development of moral reasoning. Piaget described a two-
stage process of moral development, while Kohlberg theory of moral development
outlined six stages within three different levels. Kohlberg extended Piaget’s theory,
proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the
lifespan.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

• Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

o The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young
children, but adults are capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At
this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is
important because it is a means to avoid punishment.

• Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange

o At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points
of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the
Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was
whichever best-served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible, but only if it
serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

• Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships

o Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of
moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and
roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration
of how choices influence relationships.

• Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order

o At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a
whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order
by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

• Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights

o At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions,
and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a
society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
 • Stage 6 - Universal Principles
o Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development:

• Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior? Kohlberg's theory is

concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing
what we ought to do versus our actual actions.

• Is justice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider? Critics have
pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the
concept as justice when making moral choices. Other factors such as compassion,
caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral
reasoning.

• Does Kohlberg's theory overemphasize Western philosophy? Individualistic

cultures emphasize personal rights while collectivistic cultures stress the
importance of society and community. Eastern cultures may have different moral
outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not account for.