Surveying I Notes

Chapter two
Measuring horizontal distance
Every surveyor has to measure the horizontal distance between two points on the surface of the earth.
Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear measurements is required in chain surveying,
traverse surveying, and other types of surveying.
In surveying the distance between two points means a horizontal distance. When slope distances are
measured in the field they are always reduced to their equivalent horizontal distance for preparation of
map.

There are in general three methods of making linear measurements

1. Direct methods
2. Optical methods
3. E.D.M methods
In the direct methods, the distance is actually measured in the field using a tape. In optical methods,
the distance is no actually measure in the field. It is computed indirectly (for example: Stadia
tacheometry).
Electromagnetic distance Measuring (EDM) instrument works based on speed of light/electromagnetic
waves. Used for measuring long distance and for construction lay out.
Two different types EDMs are available:
1) Electro optical instruments, which use light waves for measurement of distance.
2) Microwave instruments, which use radio waves for measurement of distance.
Approximate method of measuring distance
The following approximate methods are commonly used in reconnaissance surveying for the
measurement of horizontal distances. These methods are also use sometimes to detect large mistakes
in linear measurements obtained with a tape.
1. Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked by counting the number of paces made. The
distance can be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by the average length of the paces.

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2 Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consist of a wheel mounted on a lower end of a rod about 1
m long through a fork. The upper end of the rod has a handle. The wheel is pushed along the
ground. The Traversed distance is recorded on the dial attached to the wheel.
3. Speedometer: All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate the speed and the distance traveled.
If the ground is smooth, the speedometer can be used to measure the distance.

Measuring tapes
Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon the material used in their
manufacture.
1. Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth. The tape is light and handy but not
very ac precise; these tapes are available in length of 10m 20m, 25m and 30m.
2. Glass—fiber tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes but they are made of
glass fiber. The tapes are quite flexible and non-conductive.
3. Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to linen tapes but are made of waterproof fabric or glass-
fiber in which metallic wires are interwoven.
4. Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes in surveying. They are more accurate
than metallic tapes. The steel tapes are made of steel or stainless steel strip.
5 invar tapes: Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel (36%), which has a very low
coefficient of thermal expansion.

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 Surveying I Notes

Invar tapes are used for linear measurements of very high precision.

Note: The zero-end of a tape can differ. To avoid blunders check the zero-end position of your tape at
the beginning of the measurement.

Taping
Instruments for taping
In addition to a tape, the following small instruments and accessories are required for the
determination of the length of a line.
1. Arrows (Chain pins)
2. Pegs
3. Ranging rods
4. Plumb bobs or rod levels
1. Arrows (Chain pins): They are used to mark the position of the ends of the tape on the ground.
2. Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the end points of the
survey line.
3. Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of points on a long survey line is called ranging.
Ranging rods are used to locate intermediate points such that these points lie on the straight line
joining the end stations. Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned, straight grained timber.
4. Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role in surveying. As a freely suspended plumb
bob always points towards direction of the gravity, it indicates the direction of the vertical line, in
linear measurements plumb bobs are used when measuring distances on sloping ground for
transferring points to the ground.

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Plumb bob ranging rod arrows (Chain pins)

Ranging out lines directly
The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line is known as ranging out or aligning in
surveying. It is necessary to establish intermediate points on a line if the distance is greater than one
tape length. The ranging out ensures that the straight distance between two points is measured.

The procedure is as follows:

Two ranging poles are set up vertically on the two ends of the line to be measured.

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The surveyor stands behind one ranging pole at a distance of about 2-3 meters. The assistant holds
another ranging rod approximately on the line at a distance not greater than one tape length.
By looking left and right along the set up ranging poles the surveyor directs the assistant to move the
ranging pole towards the line. The assistant has to hold the ranging pole vertically.

Having more than one ranging pole to be aligned, start always with the farther one to have a good
visibility.
Never take an intermediate point for ranging out a further intermediate point. If the first intermediate
point has been aligned incorrectly you would align the second one into a wrong line.

After establishing all intermediate points the result of the ranging out has to be checked. Therefore,
sight left and right along the line, The ranging poles have to appear one after the other in the right
order - that means from the nearest to the most distant one.

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 Surveying I Notes

Code of signals: The following codes of signals are used to direct the assistant while ranging a line.
Code Meaning
1 Rapid sweeps with right hand Move considerably to the right.
2. Rapid sweeps with left hand Move considerably to the left.
3 Slow sweeps with right hand Move slowly to the right.
4. Slow sweeps with left hand Move slowly to the left.
5 Right arm extended Continue to move to the right.
6 Left arm extended Continue to move to the left.
7 Right arm up and moved right to the Plump the rod to the right.
8 Left arm up and moved to the left Plump the rod to the left.
9 Both arms above head and then brought down Correct.
10 Both arms extended forward and depressed briskly Fix.
Horizontal measurement on slopping ground
In surveying, all distances are measured with reference to the horizontal plane. The drawn plan will
then be a true projection of the ground.
a) Angle of inclination (indirect method). Land with a slope of 3° or less is usually considered as
level, since the difference between the length of the slope measurement and the horizontal
measurement is negligible. This is illustrated in Figure below, where AC represents the surface of the
ground making an angle α (the angle of inclination) with the horizontal AB. If AC and α are known, it
is a simple matter to calculate AB:
AB=AC cos α
i.e. horizontal length = slope length x cos (angle of inclination)
Where the angle is very small, the value of the cosine is nearly unity. Obviously the smaller the angle
α, the nearer the length AC equates with AB. As the angle increases, the value of the cosine decreases
rapidly; therefore, for large angles of inclination, the correction must be made or a serious error will be
introduced.

Figure. Horizontal measurement on slopping ground

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 Surveying I Notes

Although the required horizontal distance AB is calculated, it is possible, where no great accuracy is
involved, to draw the section to scale once the length AC and the angle α are known. The distance AB
will then be scaled off from the drawing.

b) Stepping or step-chaining (direct method): The chainmen hold the chain, or part chain,
horizontal from a point on the ground and into space. The next point of measurement on the ground is
found by means of a plumb-bob or a dropping-arrow. The surveyor will determine, by eye, the
horizontality of the chain (i.e. when it is at a right angle to the plumb-line) and an arrow is then
inserted into the ground. This point will be the next position from which the chain will be held
horizontally.

Figure. Illustrates the method, which should always be carried out in a downhill direction it would
be impossible to hold B1 exactly over B and resist a pull as the leader holds the chain at A. The method
must therefore be as follows: handle at A; horizontal chain AB1 plumb-bob to find B; handle moved to
B; horizontal chain BC1 plumb-bob to find C; and so on down the hill.

When chaining across a valley, it is necessary to erect a survey station, on line, in the trough and then
chain down both sides to this point.
Care must be taken to keep chain lengths short 10 m or 5m so that excessive sag does not result in
positive errors in measurement.
Common Mistakes Made in tapping
Some of the most common mistakes made in taping are described in this section, and a method of
eliminating each is suggested.
 Reading Tape Wrong. A frequent mistake made by tape men is reading the wrong number on the
tape, for example, reading a 6 instead of a 9 or a 9 instead of a 6. As tapes become older these

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mistakes become more frequent because the numbers on the tape become worn. These blunders
can be eliminated if tape men develop the simple habit of looking at the adjacent numbers on the
tape when readings are taken.
 Recording Numbers. Occasionally, the recorder will misunderstand a measurement that is called
out to him or her. To prevent this kind of mistake, the recorder can repeat the values aloud,
including the decimals, as he or she records them.
 Missing a Tape Length. It is not very difficult to lose or gain a tape length in measuring long
distances. The careful use of taping pins should prevent this mistake. In addition, the surveyor can
many times eliminate such mistakes by cultivating the habit of estimating distances by eye or by
pacing or better, by taking Stadia readings whenever possible.
 Mistaking Zero End of a Tape. Some tapes are manufactured with the 0- end at the
very ends of the tapes. Other tapes have them at a little distance from the ends. Clearly, tape men
should not make mistakes like these if they have taken the time to examine the tape before they
begin to take measurements.
Taping corrections (Corrections applied to the measured length by tape)
Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature and tension. Change in temperature, tension and
mode of support affect the result of taping. The errors caused by these sources behave according
physical Laws and can be expressed mathematical expressions. They are systematic errors.
1. Correction for standard: A steel tape will normally be provided with standardizing data, for
example it may be designated as 30m long under a tension of 50N at a temperature of 20 C° when
laid on the flat. With use the tape may stretch and it is imperative that the tape is regularly checked
against a reference tape kept specifically for this purpose.
The correction to be applied to any measurement made with the tape in order to account for the
deviation is called the absolute correction Ca.
Ca= true length–nominal length
The true length is the value determined by calibration under specific conditions. It is best to
understand and then memorize the following set of rules.
1. When measuring an unknown distance, if Tape is too long, add the
correction; if tape is too short, subtract the correction.
2. When laying out a given distance, if the tape is too short, add the
correction; if the tape is too long, subtract the correction

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Example
A distance is measured with a 50m steel tape and is found to be 1357.40m. Later the tape is
standardized and is found to have an actual length of 49.96m. What is the correct distance
measured?
Solution: Ca=true length–nominal length
= 49.96–50=–0.04/ tape length
 1357.40  0.04 
Corrected distance=1357.40+  

 50 

= 1357.40–1.08592=1356.3141m
2. Correction for tension (pull correction): Since a steel tape is elastic to a small extent its length
is changed by variation in the tension applied. The correction, which should be applied, is

Where: P = the tension applied in the field.

Ps = the standard/ calibration tension
A = the cross sectional area of the tape.
E =Young’s modulus for the tape material (N/ mm2)
L = the observed length.
Note: The sign of the correction takes that of quantity (P-Ps). To apply this correction a tension
handle is needed.
Example
A 30m tape weighing 0.90kg has cross-sectional area of 0.0485 cm2. During the field measures the
tape is pulled under a tension of 45kg. The tape was standardized under a tension of 10kg and modulus
of elasticity of the tape is 2.1x106 kg/cm2. Determine the correct distance measured.
Solution; Using the above equation (correction for pull)
( p  Ps) L
Cp 
A.E
( 45  10)30

0.0485 * 2.1x106
 0.010

The correct distance =29.94+0.010

= 29.95m
3. Correction for sag: A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the centre by an amount that is
related to its weight and the pull (tension). In the case of a long tape intermediate supports can be

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used to reduce the magnitude of the correction. The correction that is applied reduces the curved
length to the chord length.

Where: w= the weight of the tape per unit length

L= the observed length
P = the tension applied in the field.
Note: if the tape is used on a plane surface, which can be considered flat then no correction is
applicable.
To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.
4. Correction for temperature: If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the
standardization temperature then the correction is:
Ct=L (T–Ts)
Where:  = the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
Steel: 0.0000115 m /°C
Invar: 0.000001 m/ °C
T= the field temperature
Ts =the standardization temperature
Note: The sign of the correction takes the sign of (T– Ts). To apply this correction a
thermometer is needed.

Example
A traverse line is 152.4 m long. If the tape used in the field is 50.0m when standardized at 17 0c,
what correction must be applied if the temperature at the time of measurement is 23 0c? (
=11.2*10-6/0c)
Solution Ct=L (T-Ts)
= 50*11.2x10-6(23-17)
= 3.36 x10-3 m/length
152.4
* 3.36 x10 3
Total correction = 50
 0.010m
5. Correction for slope: In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a
distance lies along a uniform slope and when the difference in height between the two end points has

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been determined it may he preferable to measure the distance directly. Afterwards the horizontal
distance can be computed by applying the following correction:

Where: Dh = the difference in height between the end points

S =the measured slope distance
6. Correction to mean sea level: In the case of long lines the relationship between the length
measured on the ground and the equivalent length at mean sea level has to he considered.
If the measured length is Lm and the height of the line above datum is H then the correction to be
applied is

Units of measurement and conversions

There are two main systems of measurements:
1) Metric system (SI Système International)
2) British system
Most countries of the world use SI metric units of measurement; SI stands for “Système International.”
Most measurements and computations in surveying are related to the determination of angles (or
directions), distance, area, and volume.

Distance (Length), Area, Volume

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Distance (Length)
In the SI system of units, length or distance is measured primarily in terms of meters (m) and its
fractions where as in the brutish system; the basic unit for distance or length is the foot (ft) and its
fractions.
1 decimeter = 0.100 meter

British System
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)
SI Metric System
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft)
1 meter (m) =1000 millimeters (mm)
1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet
1 meter (m) =100 centimeters (cm)
1 chain (ch) = 66 feet
1 meter =10 decimeters (dm)
1 chain =100 links (lk) = 4 rods (rd)
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters
1 mile =80 chains
1 millimeter= 0.001 meter
1 fathom (fm) = 6 feet
1 centimeter =0.010 meter

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British and SI Metric Equivalences
1 inch =25.4 millimeters* 1 meter= 39.37009 inches
1 foot=0.3048 meter 1 meter =3.2808399 feet
1 mile=1.609344 Kilometers 1 kilometer =0.62137119 mile
(Note: * denotes an exact equivalence.)
Example Conversions:
1. Convert a distance of 567.89 ft to its equivalent in meters.
567.89 ft x 0.3048 m =173.09 m
1 ft
2. Convert a distance 2.34 km to its equivalent in miles.
2.34 km x0.62 137 119 mi =1.45 mi
1 km

Area
The unit for measuring area, which expresses the amount of two-dimensional Space encompassed
within the boundary of a closed figure or shape, is derived from the basic unit of length. In SI
metric units, the basic unit for area is the square meter (m2). Large land areas may be expressed in
terms of square kilometers (sq km or km2) or hectares (ha), where 1 ha is equivalent to 1 0 000 m2.
Another metric unit for area is the are, where 1 are = 100 m2.

SI Metric System
British System
1 square kilometer (km2) =106 square
1 square yard (yd2) = 9 square feet (ft2)
meters (m2)
1 cubic yard (yd3) = 27 cubic feet (ft3)
1 square kilometer =100 hectares (ha)
1 acre (ac) =10 square chains
1 hectare= 10000 square meters
1 acre = 43560 square feet
1 hectare =100 ares
I square mile (mi2) = 640 acres
1 are =100 square meters
1 m2 = 106 mm2
104 m2 = 1 hectare (ha)
106 m2 = 1 square kilometer (km2
British and SI Metric Equivalences
1 square yard =0.8361274 square meter 1 square kilometer=0.3861 Square mile
1 cubic yard =0.764555 cubic meter 1 square meter =1.19599 square yards
1 square foot =0.0929368 square meter 1 cubic meter =1.30795 cubic yards
1 acre = 0.40468564 hectare 1 square mile= 2.59 square kilometers
1 hectare= 2.47 10538 acres 1 square meter =10.76 square feet
Volume
The SI Unit for volume is the derived unit cubic meter (m3)
1000 cu millimeters =1 cubic centimeter
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
1000 Cu decimeters =1 cubic meter