8/7/2020 Calculation of wind load on building side walls - Eurocode 1

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Eurocode 1
Wind load on building side walls (external and
internal pressure coe cients)
Description:
Calculation of wind load action e ects on vertical side walls of building. The net e ect of external and
internal wind pressure for zones A, B, C, D, E on the wall surface are calculated from the
corresponding pressure coe cients
According to:
EN 1991-1-4:2005+A1:2010 Section 7.2.2
Applicable for:
Vertical walls of rectangular plan buildings, at or inclined roof, and height h less than ve times the
width b perpendicular to the wind direction, consisting of one skin
Supported National
Annexes:
Only countries that adopt CEN recommended values for section 7.2.2 of EN1991-1-4 are supported.
The value of the peak velocity pressure can be speci ed manually. Otherwise automatic calculation of
peak velocity pressure is supported, in addition to countries that adopt the CEN recommended values
for NDPs, also for the following National Annexes: Finland, Portugal. The National Annexes of
Germamy, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland are NOT supported (enter peak velocity pressure
manually).

Input
Terrain category =  IV

Illustration of Terrain categories reproduced from EN1991-1-4 Annex A

Basic wind velocity vb =  27 m/s

Dimension of rectangular plan parallel d =  10 m

to the wind direction

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Dimension of rectangular plan b =  20 m

perpendicular to the wind direction

Height of building from ground up to h =  35 m

roof level

Size of loaded area that produces the =  <1m² (Cpe,1)

wind action for the examined
veri cation

Orography factor at reference height ze c0(ze) =  1

Minimum value of internal pressure cpi,min =  -0.3

coe cient

Maximum value of internal pressure cpi,max =  0.2

coe cient

Nationally De ned Parameters

Air density ρ =  1.25 kg/m3

Results
Net wind pressure on zone A wnet,A = -1.502 kN/m2
Net wind pressure on zone B wnet,B = -1.221 kN/m2
Net wind pressure on zone C wnet,C = N/A
Net wind pressure on zone D wnet,D = 1.221 kN/m2
Net wind pressure on zone D' wnet,D' = 0.974 kN/m2
Net wind pressure on zone E wnet,E = -0.775 kN/m2

Pressure zones for side walls of building, reproduced from EN1991-1-4 Figures 7.4 and 7.5

Notes
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1. The calculated net wind pressure wnet corresponds to the overall wind e ect on the surface
including both the external wind pressure and the internal wind pressure.
2. Pressure zones that are not applicable for the examined structure are denoted by N/A.
3. The sign convention for the net pressure is the same as its external pressure part. Negative
pressure values correspond to suction directed away from the surface i.e. towards the exterior
of the building.
4. The calculated wind action e ects are characteristic values (unfactored). Appropriate load
factors should be applied for the relevant design situation. For ULS veri cations the partial
load factor γQ = 1.50 is applicable for variable actions.
5. According to EN1991-1-4 §7.2.1(1) for intermediate loaded areas A between 1m2 and 10m2 the
external pressure coe cient cpe may be calculated between the values cpe,1 and cpe,10 with
logarithmic interpolation: cpe = cpe,1 - (cpe,1 - cpe,10)⋅log10A.

Details
Input Data
Terrain category: = IV
Basic wind velocity: vb = 27 m/s
Dimension of rectangular plan parallel to the wind direction: d = 10 m
Dimension of rectangular plan perpendicular to the wind direction: b = 20 m
Height of building from ground up to roof level: h = 35 m
Size of loaded area that produces the wind action for the examined veri cation: = <1m² (Cpe,1)
Orography factor at reference height ze: c0(ze) = 1
Minimum value of internal pressure coe cient: cpi,min = -0.3
Maximum value of internal pressure coe cient: cpi,max = 0.2

Nationally De ned Parameters

Air density: ρ = 1.25 kg/m3

Calculation of peak velocity pressure

Reference height
The reference height for the wind action ze is equal to the upper height of the di erent wall parts for
the windward wall (zone D) and maximum height above ground of the building h for leeward wall
(zone E) and sidewalls (zones A, B, C), as speci ed in EN1991-1-4 §7.2.2(1). Therefore:

ze = h = 35.000 m

Basic wind velocity

The basic wind velocity vb is de ned in EN1991-1-4 §4.2(2)P as a function of the wind direction and
time of year at 10 m above ground of terrain category II. It is calculated as:

vb = cdir⋅cseason⋅vb,0

where vb,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity which is de ned in EN1991-1-4 §4.2(1)P
as the characteristic 10 minutes mean wind velocity at 10 m above ground level for terrain category
II. The value of vb,0 is provided in the National Annex based on the climatic conditions of the region
where the structure is located. The in uence of altitude on the basic wind velocity vb may also be
speci ed in the National Annex.

The directional factor cdir and the seasonal factor cseason are de ned in EN1991-1-4 §4.2(2)P and they
take into account the e ects of wind direction and time of the year. Their values are generally equal
to cdir = 1.0 and cseason = 1.0. The National Annex may specify values of cdir and cseason di erent than
1.0.

In the following calculations the basic wind velocity is considered as vb = 27.00 m/s.

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Terrain roughness
The roughness length z0 and the minimum height zmin are speci ed in EN1991-1-4 Table 4.1 as a
function of the terrain category. For terrain category IV the corresponding values are z0 = 1.000 m
and zmin = 10.0 m.

The terrain factor kr depending on the roughness length z0 = 1.000 m is calculated in accordance
with EN1991-1-4 equation (4.5):

kr = 0.19 ⋅ (z0 / z0,II)0.07 = 0.19 ⋅ (1.000 m / 0.050 m)0.07 = 0.2343

The roughness factor cr(ze) at the reference height ze accounts for the variability of the mean wind
velocity at the site of the structure due to the height above ground level and the ground roughness
of the terrain upwind of the structure. It is calculated in accordance with EN1991-1-4 equation 4.4.

For the case where ze ≥ zmin:

cr(ze) = kr ⋅ ln(ze / z0) = 0.2343 ⋅ ln(35.000 m / 1.000 m) = 0.8331

Orography factor
Where orography (e.g. hills, cli s etc.) increases wind velocities by more than 5% the e ects should
be taken into account using an orography factor c0(ze) di erent than 1.0, as speci ed in EN1994-1-1
§4.3.3. In general the e ects of orography may be neglected when the average slope of the upwind
terrain is less than 3° up to a distance of 10 times the height of the isolated orographic feature. The
recommended procedure in EN1994-1-1 §4.3.3 for calculation of the orography factor c0(ze) is
described in EN1994-1-1 §A.3.

In the following calculations the orography factor is considered as c0(ze) = 1.000.

Mean wind velocity

The mean wind velocity vm(ze) at reference height ze depends on the terrain roughness, terrain
orography and the basic wind velocity vb. It is determined using EN1991-1-4 equation (4.3):

vm(ze) = cr(ze) ⋅ c0(ze) ⋅ vb = 0.8331 ⋅ 1.000 ⋅ 27.00 m/s = 22.49 m/s

Wind turbulence
The turbulence intensity Iv(ze) at reference height ze is de ned as the standard deviation of the
turbulence divided by the mean wind velocity. It is calculated in accordance with EN1991-1-4 equation
4.7.

For the case where ze ≥ zmin:

Iv(ze) = kI / [ c0(ze) ⋅ ln(ze / z0) ] = 1.000 / [ 1.000 ⋅ ln(35.000 m / 1.000 m) ] = 0.2813

where the turbulence factor is considered as kI = 1.000 in accordance with EN1991-1-4 §4.4(1).

Basic velocity pressure

The basic velocity pressure qb is the pressure corresponding to the wind momentum determined at
the basic wind velocity vb. The basic velocity pressure is calculated according to the following
fundamental relation, as speci ed in EN1991-14 §4.5(1):

qb = (1/2) ⋅ ρ ⋅ vb2 = (1/2) ⋅ 1.25 kg/m3 ⋅ (27.00 m/s)2 = 0.456 kN/m2

where ρ is the density of the air in accordance with EN1991-1-4 §4.5(1). In this calculation the
following value is considered: ρ = 1.25 kg/m3.

Peak velocity pressure

The peak velocity pressure qp(ze) at reference height ze includes mean and short-term velocity
uctuations. It is determined according to EN1991-1-4 equation 4.8:

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qp(ze) = (1 + 7⋅Iv(ze)) ⋅ (1/2) ⋅ ρ ⋅ vm(ze)2 = (1 + 7⋅0.2813) ⋅ (1/2) ⋅ 1.25 kg/m3 ⋅ (22.49 m/s)2
⇒ qp(ze) = 0.939 kN/m2

where the density of the air is considered as ρ = 1.25 kg/m3 in accordance with EN1991-1-4 §4.5(1).

The calculated value of qp(ze) corresponds to an exposure factor ce(ze):

ce(ze) = qp(ze) / qb = 0.939 kN/m2 / 0.456 kN/m2 = 2.0607

Therefore the peak velocity pressure is calculated as qp(ze) = 0.939 kN/m2.

Peak velocity pressure at level z = b

The peak velocity pressure is also evaluated at level z = b = 20.000 m (i.e. level with height equal to
the width of building perpendicular to the wind direction). The correspoding peak velocity pressure
qp(b) at height z = b is evaluated by repeating the previous calculations with ze = b = 20.000 m. The
resulting peak velocity pressure at level z = b is calculated as qp(b) = 0.749 kN/m2.

Calculation of the distribution of external wind pressure on the walls

Pressure coe cient type

The external pressure coe cients are divided into overall coe cients cpe,10 and local coe cients
cpe,1 as described in EN1991-1-4 §7.1.1(1) and §7.2.1(1). Local coe cients cpe,1 correspond to wind
pressure for loaded areas ≤ 1m2 and they may be used for the design of small elements and xings
with an area per element of 1m2 or less such as cladding elements and roo ng elements. Overall
coe cients cpe,10 correspond to wind pressure for loaded areas ≥ 10m2 and they may be used for
the design of the overall load bearing structure.

According to EN1991-1-4 §7.2.1(1) for intermediate loaded areas A between 1m2 and 10m2 the
external pressure coe cient cpe may be calculated between the values cpe,1 and cpe,10 with
logarithmic interpolation as follows:

cpe = cpe,1 - (cpe,1 - cpe,10)⋅log10A

In the examined calculation the provided external pressure corresponds to coe cient cpe,1 i.e. the
results are applicable for local veri cations.

Pressure zones and external pressure coe cients

The wind load on the structure is expressed in terms of external pressure coe cients for ve zones
A, B, C, D, E as de ned in EN1991-1-4 Figures 7.4 and 7.5 that are reproduced above. The extent of the
zones depends on the length e that is de ned as:

e = min(b, 2h) = min(20.000 m, 2 ⋅ 35.000 m) = 20.000 m

- Pressure zones for sidewalls:

The most adverse Zone A extends from the front corners for length e/4. Zone B extends for length
from e/4 to e. Zone C extends for length beyond e. For the examined case where e = 20.000 m the
applicable zones are zones A, B.

- Pressure zone for windward wall:

The pressure zone corresponding to the windward wall is zone D.

For buildings with b < h ≤ 2b the windward wall is considered to be in two parts: a lower part
extending upwards from the ground by a height equal to b (denoted as zone D' in the gure) and the
remainder upper part denoted as zone D in the gure.

- Pressure zone for leeward wall:

The pressure zone corresponding to the leeward wall is zone E.

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- External pressure coe cients

The external pressure coe cient cpe for each of zones A, B, C, D, E is de ned in EN1991-1-4 Table 7.1
as a function of the ratio h/d. For the examined case: h/d = 35.000 m / 10.000 m = 3.500. Moreover,
for the examined case the pressure coe cient cpe,1 is examined that corresponds to the wind e ects
on loaded areas in the order of 1m2 that are appropriate for local e ects of the structure. Therefore
according to EN1991-1-4 Table 7.1 the following external pressure coe cient are obtained, using
linear interpolation where appropriate:

For zone A: cpe,A = -1.400

For zone B: cpe,B = -1.100

For zone C: cpe,C = -0.500

For zone D: cpe,D = 1.000

For zone E: cpe,E = -0.625

Negative values for the external pressure coe cient correspond to suction directed away from the
wall surface towards the exterior.

Internal pressure coe cients

Internal pressure coe cients cpi are speci ed in EN1991-1-4 §7.2.9 depending on the size and
distribution of the openings of the building and background permeability due to leakage paths. For
building without a dominant face and where it is not possible or not justi ed to estimate the e ect of
opening distribution in a more accurate manner then the most onerous internal pressure coe cient
cpi = +0.2 or cpi = -0.3 should be considered, as speci ed in EN1991-1-4 §7.2.9(6), Note 2.

In this calculation the following value of the internal pressure coe cient are considered:

cpi,min = -0.300 and cpi,max = 0.200

Negative values for the internal pressure coe cient correspond to suction directed away from the
internal surface inducing forces towards the interior of the building.

External wind pressure

The external wind pressure on the structure we corresponds to the pressure e ect on the exterior
surface of the side walls. The external pressure on the surfaces is derived from the calculated value
of the peak velocity pressure qp(ze) = 0.939 kN/m2 by application of the appropriate external
pressure coe cient cpe as speci ed in EN1991-1-4 §5.2(1).

we = qp(ze) ⋅ cpe

Internal wind pressure

The internal wind pressure on the structure wi corresponds to the pressure e ect on the interior
surface of the side walls. The internal pressure on the surfaces is derived from the value of the peak
velocity pressure qp(zi) by application of the appropriate internal pressure coe cient cpi as speci ed
in EN1991-1-4 §5.2(2).

wi = qp(zi) ⋅ cpi

The peak velocity pressure qp(zi) corresponds to the reference height for internal pressure zi. The
reference height for the internal pressure is speci ed in EN1991-1-4 §7.2.9(7) equal to the reference
height ze corresponding to the faces which contribute with their openings to the creation of the
internal pressure. In this calculation it is assumed that zi = ze = 35.000 m and qp(zi) = qp(ze) = 0.939
kN/m2.

Net wind pressure

The net wind pressure on the surfaces of the structure wnet corresponds to the combined e ects of
external wind pressure and internal wind pressure.
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For structural surfaces consisting of only one skin the net pressure e ect is determined as:

wnet = we - wi = qp(ze) ⋅ cpe - qp(zi) ⋅ cpi

For structural surfaces consisting of more than one skin EN1991-1-4 §7.2.10 is applicable.

Net wind pressure on pressure zones

The most unfavorable net wind pressure for each pressure zone is obtained by combining the
corresponding external pressure coe cient cpe with the most unfavorable value of the internal
pressure coe cient cpi,min = -0.300 or cpi,max = 0.200. When cpe is positive then cpi,min = -0.300 is most
onerous. When cpe is negative then cpi,max = 0.200 is most onerous.

For the lower part of the windward wall (denoted as zone D') the external wind pressure is derived
by the wind pressure qp(b) = 0.749 kN/m2 corresponding to level equal to z = b.

we = qp(b) ⋅ cpe

For the di erent pressure zones on the building walls the following net pressures are obtained:

- For zone A: wnet,A = -1.502 kN/m2

(zone A start at the front corners of the sidewalls and extends for length e/4 = 4.000 m)

- For zone B: wnet,B = -1.221 kN/m2

(zone B extends for length from e/4 = 4.000 m up to the full length d = 10.000 m along the wind
direction)

- Zone C is not applicable for the examined structure.

- Zone D: wnet,D = 1.221 kN/m2

(zone D starts from level b = 20.000 m up to level equal to the total height of the windward wall h =
35.000 m)

- Zone D': wnet,D' = 0.974 kN/m2

(zone D' starts from the ground level up to level equal to b = 20.000 m)

- For zone E: wnet,E = -0.775 kN/m2

(zones E corresponds to the leeward wall)

Negative net pressure values correspond to suction directed away from the external surface towards
the exterior.

Additional notes
If signi cant openings exist on the structure then internal wind pressure may need to be
determined accurately as described in EN1991-1-4 §5.2.
Lack of correlation between the windward size (zone D) and the leeward side (zone E) may be
taken into account by application of a reduction coe cient to the resulting force as described
in EN1991-1-4 §7.2.2(3).
The calculated wind action e ects are characteristic values (unfactored). Appropriate load
factors should be applied for the relevant design situation. For ULS veri cations the partial
load factor γQ = 1.50 is applicable for variable actions according to EN1990.

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