Programmable logic controllers 3

a switch to detect the level of the water. On the basis of these inputs the
microprocessor is programmed to give outputs which switch on the drum
motor and control its speed, open or close cold and hot water valves,
switch on the drain pump, control the water heater and control the door
lock so that the machine cannot be opened until the washing cycle is
completed.

1.1.2 The programmable logic controller

A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a special form of micro-
processor-based controller that uses a programmable memory to store
instructions and to implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting and arithmetic in order to control machines and processes
(Figure 1.3) and are designed to be operated by engineers with perhaps a
limited knowledge of computers and computing languages. They are not
designed so that only computer programmers can set up or change the
programs. Thus, the designers of the PLC have pre-programmed it so that
the control program can be entered using a simple, rather intuitive, form
of language, see Chapter 4. The term logic is used because programming
is primarily concerned with implementing logic and switching operations,
e.g. if A or B occurs switch on C, if A and B occurs switch on D. Input
devices, e.g. sensors such as switches, and output devices in the system
being controlled, e.g. motors, valves, etc., are connected to the PLC. The
operator then enters a sequence of instructions, i.e. a program, into the
memory of the PLC. The controller then monitors the inputs and outputs
according to this program and carries out the control rules for which it has
been programmed.
Program

Inputs Outputs
PLC

Figure 1.3 A programmable logic controller

PLCs have the great advantage that the same basic controller can be
used with a wide range of control systems. To modify a control system
and the rules that are to be used, all that is necessary is for an operator to
key in a different set of instructions. There is no need to rewire. The result
is a flexible, cost effective, system which can be used with control systems
which vary quite widely in their nature and complexity.
PLCs are similar to computers but whereas computers are optimised for
calculation and display tasks, PLCs are optimised for control tasks and the
industrial environment. Thus PLCs are:

1 Rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity

and noise.
2 Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller.
4 Programmable Logic Controllers

3 Are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming

language which is primarily concerned with logic and switching
operations.

The first PLC was developed in 1969. They are now widely used and
extend from small self-contained units for use with perhaps 20 digital
inputs/outputs to modular systems which can be used for large numbers of
inputs/outputs, handle digital or analogue inputs/outputs, and also carry
out proportional-integral-derivative control modes.

1.2 Hardware Typically a PLC system has the basic functional components of processor
unit, memory, power supply unit, input/output interface section,
communications interface and the programming device. Figure 1.4 shows
the basic arrangement.

Programming
device Program & data Communications
memory interface

Input Output
inter- Processor inter-
face face

Power supply

Figure 1.4 The PLC system

1 The processor unit or central processing unit (CPU) is the unit

containing the microprocessor and this interprets the input signals and
carries out the control actions, according to the program stored in its
memory, communicating the decisions as action signals to the
outputs.
2 The power supply unit is needed to convert the mains a.c. voltage to
the low d.c. voltage (5 V) necessary for the processor and the circuits
in the input and output interface modules.
3 The programming device is used to enter the required program into
the memory of the processor. The program is developed in the device
and then transferred to the memory unit of the PLC.
4 The memory unit is where the program is stored that is to be used for
the control actions to be exercised by the microprocessor and data
stored from the input for processing and for the output for outputting.
5 The input and output sections are where the processor receives
information from external devices and communicates information to
external devices. The inputs might thus be from switches, as
illustrated in Figure 1.1(a) with the automatic drill, or other sensors
such as photo-electric cells, as in the counter mechanism in Figure
1.1(b), temperature sensors, or flow sensors, etc. The outputs might
be to motor starter coils, solenoid valves, etc. Input and output
 Programmable logic controllers 5

interfaces are discussed in Chapter 2. Input and output devices can be

classified as giving signals which are discrete, digital or analogue
(Figure 1.5). Devices giving discrete or digital signals are ones where
the signals are either off or on. Thus a switch is a device giving a
discrete signal, either no voltage or a voltage. Digital devices can be
considered to be essentially discrete devices which give a sequence of
on off signals. Analogue devices give signals whose size is
proportional to the size of the variable being monitored. For example,
a temperature sensor may give a voltage proportional to the
temperature.

Voltage

Voltage
(a) (b)
Time Time

Voltage
(c) Time

Figure 1.5 Signals: (a) discrete, (b) digital, (c) analogue

6 The communications interface is used to receive and transmit data on

communication networks from or to other remote PLCs (Figure 1.6).
It is concerned with such actions as device verification, data
acquisition, synchronisation between user applications and
connection management.

Supervisory
system

Communications
network

PLC 1 PLC 2

Machine/ Machine/
plant plant

Figure 1.6 Basic communications model

1.3 Internal architecture Figure 1.7 shows the basic internal architecture of a PLC. It consists of a
central processing unit (CPU) containing the system microprocessor,
memory, and input/output circuitry. The CPU controls and processes all
the operations within the PLC. It is supplied with a clock with a frequency
of typically between 1 and 8 MHz. This frequency determines the
operating speed of the PLC and provides the timing and synchronisation
for all elements in the system. The information within the PLC is carried
by means of digital signals. The internal paths along which digital signals
flow are called buses. In the physical sense, a bus is just a number of
6 Programmable Logic Controllers

conductors along which electrical signals can flow. It might be tracks on a

printed circuit board or wires in a ribbon cable. The CPU uses the data
bus for sending data between the constituent elements, the address bus to
send the addresses of locations for accessing stored data and the control
bus for signals relating to internal control actions. The system bus is used
for communications between the input/output ports and the input/output
unit.

Address bus

Control bus
Program panel

User System Data Input/

Battery

Clock

program CPU ROM RAM output

RAM unit

Data bus

I/O system bus

Buffer Latch

Opto- Driver
coupler interface

Drivers e.g. relays

Input channels

Output channels

Figure 1.7 Architecture of a PLC

1.3.1 The CPU

The internal structure of the CPU depends on the microprocessor
concerned. In general they have:

1 An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) which is responsible for data

manipulation and carrying out arithmetic operations of addition and
subtraction and logic operations of AND, OR, NOT and
EXCLUSIVE-OR.
2 Memory, termed registers, located within the microprocessor and
used to store information involved in program execution.
3 A control unit which is used to control the timing of operations.

1.3.2 The buses

The buses are the paths used for communication within the PLC. The
information is transmitted in binary form, i.e. as a group of bits with a bit
 Programmable logic controllers 7

being a binary digit of 1 or 0, i.e. on/off states. The term word is used for
the group of bits constituting some information. Thus an 8-bit word might
be the binary number 00100110. Each of the bits is communicated
simultaneously along its own parallel wire. The system has four buses:

1 The data bus carries the data used in the processing carried out by the
CPU. A microprocessor termed as being 8-bit has an internal data bus
which can handle 8-bit numbers. It can thus perform operations
between 8-bit numbers and deliver results as 8-bit values.
2 The address bus is used to carry the addresses of memory locations.
So that each word can be located in the memory, every memory
location is given a unique address. Just like houses in a town are each
given a distinct address so that they can be located, so each word
location is given an address so that data stored at a particular location
can be accessed by the CPU either to read data located there or put,
i.e. write, data there. It is the address bus which carries the
information indicating which address is to be accessed. If the address
bus consists of 8 lines, the number of 8-bit words, and hence number
of distinct addresses, is 28 = 256. With 16 address lines, 65 536
addresses are possible.
3 The control bus carries the signals used by the CPU for control, e.g.
to inform memory devices whether they are to receive data from an
input or output data and to carry timing signals used to synchronise
actions.
4 The system bus is used for communications between the input/output
ports and the input/output unit.

1.3.3 Memory
There are several memory elements in a PLC system:

1 System read-only-memory (ROM) to give permanent storage for the

operating system and fixed data used by the CPU.
2 Random-access memory (RAM) for the user’s program.
3 Random-access memory (RAM) for data. This is where information is
stored on the status of input and output devices and the values of
timers and counters and other internal devices. The data RAM is
sometimes referred to as a data table or register table. Part of this
memory, i.e. a block of addresses, will be set aside for input and
output addresses and the states of those inputs and outputs. Part will
be set aside for preset data and part for storing counter values, timer
values, etc.
4 Possibly, as a bolt-on extra module, erasable and programmable
read-only-memory (EPROM) for ROMs that can be programmed and
then the program made permanent.

The programs and data in RAM can be changed by the user. All PLCs
will have some amount of RAM to store programs that have been
developed by the user and program data. However, to prevent the loss of
programs when the power supply is switched off, a battery is used in the
PLC to maintain the RAM contents for a period of time. After a program
8 Programmable Logic Controllers

has been developed in RAM it may be loaded into an EPROM memory

chip, often a bolt-on module to the PLC, and so made permanent. In
addition there are temporary buffer stores for the input/output channels.
The storage capacity of a memory unit is determined by the number of
binary words that it can store. Thus, if a memory size is 256 words then it
can store 256 8 = 2048 bits if 8-bit words are used and 256 16 = 4096
bits if 16-bit words are used. Memory sizes are often specified in terms of
the number of storage locations available with 1K representing the
number 210, i.e. 1024. Manufacturers supply memory chips with the
storage locations grouped in groups of 1, 4 and 8 bits. A 4K 1 memory
has 4 1 1024 bit locations. A 4K 8 memory has 4 8 1024 bit
locations. The term byte is used for a word of length 8 bits. Thus the 4K
8 memory can store 4096 bytes. With a 16-bit address bus we can have 216
different addresses and so, with 8-bit words stored at each address, we can
have 216 8 storage locations and so use a memory of size 216 8/210 =
64K 8 which we might be as four 16K 8 bit memory chips.

1.3.4 Input/output unit

The input/output unit provides the interface between the system and the
outside world, allowing for connections to be made through input/output
channels to input devices such as sensors and output devices such as
motors and solenoids. It is also through the input/output unit that
programs are entered from a program panel. Every input/output point has
a unique address which can be used by the CPU. It is like a row of houses
along a road, number 10 might be the ‘house’ to be used for an input from
a particular sensor while number ‘45’ might be the ‘house’ to be used for
the output to a particular motor.
The input/output channels provide isolation and signal conditioning
functions so that sensors and actuators can often be directly connected to
them without the need for other circuitry. Electrical isolation from the
external world is usually by means of optoisolators (the term optocoupler
is also often used). Figure 1.8 shows the principle of an optoisolator.
When a digital pulse passes through the light-emitting diode, a pulse of
infrared radiation is produced. This pulse is detected by the
phototransistor and gives rise to a voltage in that circuit. The gap between
the light-emitting diode and the phototransistor gives electrical isolation
but the arrangement still allows for a digital pulse in one circuit to give
rise to a digital pulse in another circuit.

Infrared radiation

Light-
Photo-
emitting
transistor
diode

Figure 1.8 Optoisolator

The digital signal that is generally compatible with the microprocessor

in the PLC is 5 V d.c. However, signal conditioning in the input channel,
 Programmable logic controllers 9

with isolation, enables a wide range of input signals to be supplied to it

(see Chapter 3 for more details). A range of inputs might be available with
a larger PLC, e.g. 5 V, 24 V, 110 V and 240 V digital/discrete, i.e.
on off, signals (Figure 1.9). A small PLC is likely to have just one form
of input, e.g. 24 V.

5V To input/
output unit
Inputs: 24 V 5V
digital signal levels Input
110 V
channel
Digital
240 V
signal level

Figure 1.9 Input levels

The output from the input/output unit will be digital with a level of 5 V.
However, after signal conditioning with relays, transistors or triacs, the
output from the output channel might be a 24 V, 100 mA switching signal,
a d.c. voltage of 110 V, 1 A or perhaps 240 V, 1 A a.c., or 240 V, 2 A
a.c., from a triac output channel (Figure 1.10). With a small PLC, all the
outputs might be of one type, e.g. 240 V a.c., 1 A. With modular PLCs,
however, a range of outputs can be accommodated by selection of the
modules to be used.

24 V, 100 mA
From 110 V, 1 A, d.c. Outputs
input/ Output
240 V, 1 A, a.c.
output 5V channel Switching
unit digital 240 V, 2 A, a.c.

Figure 1.10 Output levels

Outputs are specified as being of relay type, transistor type or triac type
(see Chapter 3 for more details):

1 With the relay type, the signal from the PLC output is used to operate
a relay and is able to switch currents of the order of a few amperes in
an external circuit. The relay not only allows small currents to switch
much larger currents but also isolates the PLC from the external
circuit. Relays are, however, relatively slow to operate. Relay outputs
are suitable for a.c. and d.c. switching. They can withstand high surge
currents and voltage transients.
2 The transistor type of output uses a transistor to switch current
through the external circuit. This gives a considerably faster
switching action. It is, however, strictly for d.c. switching and is
destroyed by overcurrent and high reverse voltage. As a protection,
either a fuse or built-in electronic protection are used. Optoisolators
are used to provide isolation.