Radio theory

• Phase: Fraction of one wavelength expressed in degrees from 000 - 360

• Cycle: A complete series of values of a periodical process
• Frequency: Number of oscillations/cycles per second of an electromagnetic wave
• Phase difference: ANGULAR difference between two cycles of equal wavelength
• Wavelength (λ) = Speed of light (m/s) ÷ frequency (Hz)
• SSB: Used in HF & VOLMET, AM
• Modulation: Addition of a low frequency signal onto high frequency carrier wave
• Phase modulation: Used by GPS, Helical antennas as GPS have circular polarization
• Pulse modulation: Radar
• NON A1A modulation/keying: Interrupting carrier wave to break it into dots & dashes does not change
frequency or amplitude
• MSI: Modulation, signal, information
• Keying: Interrupting the carrier wave to break it into dots & dashes

Antennae
• Electrical field E same direction as aerial
• Magnetic field H perpendicular to aerial
• Antennae length = half wavelength (λ)
• POLARIZATION: Orientation of the plane of oscillation of the electrical component E
• AC induced parallel to wire, but remote from it
• First wire radiates energy to space, second wire induces AC
• Flat (Slotted) plate eliminates/generates less side lobes than parabolic
• Helical antennae used by GPS due to circular polarization
• Radar uses one antenna for both transmitting and receiving
• Directional antennas: Loop(ADF), parabolic, slotted planar, helical
• Dipole antennas: Are the simplest. Needs the receiver & transmitter of electrical field on the same
planes

Radio propagation
• Electromagnetic wave : Sky wave, Radio wave: Space wave
• Absorption: Energy taken up by atmosphere
• Attenuation:
- Weakening of the radio wave.
- Lower frequency, greater attenuation. (RANGE)
• Diffraction: Passing/bending over impenetrable obstacles with dimensions close to wavelength
• Reflection: Change in direction of radio wave after reaching a boundary (Used by HF)
• Refraction: Change in direction/bending due to a change in speed, as it passes area of different
electrical conductivity. (SKYWAVES) (Used by HF)
• Interference: Superimposition of two radio waves of same frequency
• Night effect/Fading: Occurs at night, Interference of ground wave with sky wave, Ionospheric
reflection. HF frequency should be reduced at night, higher frequency & higher Ionospheric layer
= larger skip distance
• ONLY HF propagates via SKYWAVE for practical use and the ground wave is really small

Direction finding
• Range = 1.23 x (√Transmitter + √Receiver)
• QUJ: True TO station (To Juliet)
QTE: True FROM station
QDM: Magnetic TO station (To your Mom)
QDR: Magnetic FROM station
• Provides HOMING, measures RELATIVE TO/AT STATION. Do NOT BANK when using
• Uses METRIC wavelengths, VHF 118MHz – 136MHz, Class A: 2° B: 5° C: 10°
• ATC must have at least 2 VDFs. Military uses UHF
• Multi-path error results in bearing error
• Uses loop & sense antenna
• Night effect: Fluctuating indications

NDB/ADF
• NDB frequency: 190 - 1750 kHz, HECTOMETRIC/KILOMETRIC wavelength
• MH + RB = MB (My hairy red balls make babies) [MB to station aka QDM]
• Power new ÷ Power old = (Range new ÷ range old)2
• ADF/NDB error: +/-5 ° generally
• To double range, power x 4
• Maintaining RB = maintaining CONSTANT TRACK
• RB angle between where I’m heading(AC nose) to where ADF needle is pointing
• True bearing is always given FROM VDF station (QTE)
• NDB/ADF variations at AIRCRAFT
VOR variations at the STATION
• Difference between HOMING & TRACKING
• Range of NDB determined by power & surface (land/water) not affected by aircraft height
Land range = 2 √Power in watts
Sea range = 3 √Power in watts
• BFO circuit: Makes A1A signal identifiable by Morse
• LOCATERS: Used for ILS, different from NDB in operations and power
• EN-ROUTE: Long range, LF A1A
• What does the arrow at the tip of the RMI indicate? QDM
• ERRORS:
- Mountain effect: Reflection (For some reason)
- Night effect/Fluctuations/Fading: Interference of REQUIRED ground wave with sky wave, sky
wave distortion of null, max at dusk & dawn, sky wave reflected from ionosphere (Only for
NDB/ADFs)
- Static interference: Thunderstorms (Most significant)
- Coastal refraction: Higher ALT = Lesser error
- Quadrantal: Refraction of aircraft fuselage
- Absence of failure warning
- Loop null error: When plane of loop is at right angles to direction of transmitter

VOR
• Phase difference = radial from VOR
• RADIAL: Magnetic bearing of aircraft FROM station
• NDB/ADF variations at AIRCRAFT
VOR variations at the STATION
• CVOR signal: Rotates at 30 times/second giving characteristics of 30Hz AM
• DVOR: Uses frequency modulation (FM), more accurate
• Using VOR outside published range, may cause interference from other transmitters
• Quoted accuracy applied at all times
• VOR switches off when there is measured error greater than 1°
• VOR frequency: 108 – 117.95MHz (VHF frequency) , METRIC wavelengths
• VOT: Test VOR
• TVOR: Terminal VOR, Even frequencies e.g. 108.25, 108.45… etc.
• 1 in 60: Angle a = (Distance off track x 60) ÷ distance along track
• Same radial, different distance: Reference & variable both unequal
 Different radial, same distance: Reference equal & variable unequal
• TO/FROM indicator: Tells whether track equal to selected bearing will bring you to or away from VOR
• Questions on CDI/OBS disregard magnetic heading, questions on HSI take into account magnetic
heading
• ERRORS:
• Scalloping (Only for VOR)
• Uneven propagation over irregular ground surfaces
• Compass stuck & RMI working: RB unavailable, radial available
• RMI stuck & ADF still working: RB still available

DME
• UHF, 960 MHz – 1215 MHz, approx. max range = LOS 200NM, DECIMETRIC SSR
• 108 – 112 MHz for terminal VOR/DME
• EPC: 50µs delay to protect receiver from reflected pulses, prevent self triggering
• DME: Processes only 2700 PPS
• Principle of time measurement between transmission & reception of radio pulses
• More PPS transmitted during search mode than tracking mode
• No lock-on during search mode, PRF reduces to 60 after 15000 PP transmitted
• PRF transmitting PP of interrogators have own unique rhythm
• Time between PPS is at random
• Transmit & receive on two different frequencies, prevent self-triggering 63Mhz apart
• Irregular transmission sequence to determine from which aircraft pulse pairs are received
• The accuracy of the DME, decrease with increase in range. But the accuracy of the groundspeed
function/reading/indication increase with increase in range because the difference between ground
range and the slant range gets bigger, groundspeed less accurate near DME
• Co-located VOR/DME: In 40s DME IDENT sounds once at 1350 Hz (Higher pitch)
For ENR: 600m/2000ft apart, for APP: <100ft
• DME/P : +/- 0.2NM
DME/N: 0.25NM + 1.25% of error
• Signal interrupted: Switch to memory mode for 10 - 15 s
• DME adjusts to strongest signals when saturated
• LOP: Ground distance on chart with DME at centre
• Transponder in aircraft, interrogator on the ground

ILS
• ILS: Odd tenths, Frequency 108.1 – 111.95 MHz
• Principle of difference in depth modulation [DDM]
• ILS produces a RADIATION PATTERN which is amplitude modulated [AM]
• Glide-slope uses UHF
• Localizer & marker beacons uses VHF
• LARD – Left & above : mod frequency 90Hz Right & down : mod frequency 150Hz
• One dot localiser = 0.5°, one dot glideslope = 0.14°
• Max safe deviation for glideslope for approach : Half scale deflection
• Within half scale deflection = Established
• Localiser coverage: 25NM within 10° and 17NM within 35°
• Glide-path coverage: 10NM within 8°, intercepted normally between 3 – 10NM
• 0.45° x glide path (LOWER EDGE); 1.75° x glide path (UPPER EDGE).
• Localiser transmitter position 300m behind end of runway
• Glideslope transmitter position 300m behind threshold
• False beams found above correct glide path
• 1 in 60: [Glide slope x distance x 6080] ÷ 60
• ROD = 5 x GS [For 3° glide slope]
 Marker Modulation Distance Colour Morse
Outer 400Hz 4NM Blue Dashes
Middle 1300Hz 0.6NM Amber Dots & dashes
Inner 3000Hz 0.04 – 0.24NM White Dots
• ILS markers transmit at 75MHz, METRIC wavelengths
• Middle marker marks DH for missed CAT I approach
CAT Decision Height Guidance RVR
I >200ft 200ft 550m
II >100ft 50ft 300m
IIIA <50ft or none To runway 200m
IIIB <50ft or none To runway >75m
IIIC None To runway No limit

• DDM : Doubles as angular displacement doubles

• Immune filter: Make ILS localiser (not glide-slope) less susceptible to interference
• Beam bends: Slight curves caused by obstructions, can be followed by large aircraft
• Scalloping: Erroneous reading/hunting/rapid indications
• Sensitive area for vehicles/aircraft are active when CAT I/II operations in progress
• DON’T mix up CDI with a flight director, CDI glideslope horizontal bar above, decrease descent rate to
recapture line/pitch up
• Back course: Align CDI/HSI needle so that it points to ILS inbound approach course, OBI reverses
sensing, HSI is correct with front course set
• ILS warning flag: When either 90 or 150 Hz signal is lost & when the percentage modulation of either
the 90 or 150 Hz signal reduced to zero

MLS
• Time referenced scanning beam (TRSB) using SHF, CENTIMETRIC wavelength
• Principle of timing the passage of two scanning beams
• DME-P used to obtain distance & 3D position
• Azimuth: +/- 40° of runway centreline at a range of 20NM
• Consists of separate azimuth & elevation transmitters, DME facility
• 200 available channels
• MLS with no DME = ILS capabilities
• Multipath error: Transmission interrupted for terrain reflection, interference are insensitive to MLS
• Aircraft receives 3 times elevation info compared to azimuth info

Pulse techniques
• Used by ASMR,SSR,AWR & Approach radar
• PRF = 300000 ÷ [Range in Km x 2]
• PRF/PRR = Pulses transmitted per second
• PRF/PRR determines max range
Pulse width/length determines minimum range; minimum useful range requires short pulses
• Short pulses more useful for primary radar, longer pulse length = more range
• Double range, power x16
• To discriminate between targets in azimuth, beam width is a factor
• High rotation rate = target info rapidly refreshed

Ground radar
• Primary search radar
Detects aircraft with no transponder
- Displays aircraft position only
 - Best scan picture = short pulse length & narrow beam
- Continuous waves for short range operation & eliminates min reception range
- Uses one directional aerial for both reception & transmission
• MTI erases & eliminates stationary targets, echoes that do not move
• ASMR operates in SHF, as EHF gets absorbed by moisture, rotates at 60 RPM
• Longer wavelength = better penetration. Wavelength must be longer than precipitation/water
droplets to be able to penetrate

AWR
• Frequency = 9375MHz, SHF CENTRIMETRIC wavelength to detect LARGE water droplets
• Two modes:
- Pencil beam: Primary mode, 3-5°, Range = >50-60NM, more power, narrow
- Fan shape/cosecant beam: Covers a large area, independent of distance
Used in MAP mode, 80°, 50 – 60NM
• Stabilized on pitch & roll
• Hazardous to personnel on the ground
• ISO-ECHO: Detect areas of possible turbulence in clouds
• Auto tilt: Used when changing altitude
• Height ring: Determines whether AWR is working
• Map mode: Ground/terrain indicated
• Turbulence indicated by fingers, hooks, scallops
• Increasing range = increasing radar sensitivity using the GAIN knob
• During climb tilt decreased and vice versa.
• PWS: Measures horizontal movement of precipitation. OFF during take-off, ON during landings
• Single very bright line indicates scanning of cathode ray tube is faulty
• Height=[tilt-beam width/2] x range x 100ft

SSR
• Ground transmitter : 1030 MHz, Aircraft transponder: 1090 MHz, separated by 60Mhz
• Principle of transponder/interrogator, echo return not used
• Two pulses received plus additional control pulses between them
• P2 pulse is used to distinguish between side lobes
• P4 pulse: A pulse after pulse train, two types
- Short: Mode S blocked, mode A/C all call
- Long: Mode A/C/S all call
• Mode S:
- Data-link &IDENT with 16 million combinations
- Mode S Broadcast for all Mode S transponders
- Mode S Selective = Interrogate only one transponder.
- ACCURACY: 25 feet
• Mode A: Sends aircraft identification. Interval between pulse 1 & 3 = 8µs
• Mode C: Sends pressure altitude info in increments of 100ft. Interval between pulse 1 & 3 = 21 µs
• SPI pulse sent when pilot presses IDENT, a special pulse after normal response train
And on controller’s display it flashes/fills in
• Operation:
1. ALT – Mode A/C/S transmitted
2. STDBY – Codes are entered
• 4096 codes for A & C
• Parameters basic: Position, squawk, FL, GS & callsign NO HEADING/SELECTED ALTITUDE
Parameters enhanced: SELECTED altitude, Mach, roll angle, IAS, true track, mag heading and no pitch,
no temperature,
• PSR compared to SSR shows only target range & bearing but more accurate, however SSR consumes
less power
• 2000: Entering area where SSR operation not required
• Errors:
1. Garbling: Replies of two or more aircraft in range of less than 1.7NM, same direction/close
proximity, overlap , superposition
2. Fruiting: Aeroplane at range responding to other interrogations from other ATC stations.
DEFRUITING: Removal of random responses from the display

RNAV
• Method of navigation using a more direct flight path within coverage of station navigation aids or
within limits of self-contained aids(INS/IRS) or a combination of these, within any airspace or flight
path, without requiring to fly over ground facilities
• Routes: Segments/waypoints defined as positions lat/long based on WGS 84
• Waypoint (Phantom station), valid VOR/DME signal & desired course
• RNP 1/ Precision RNAV: Accuracy +/- 1 NM 95% of flight time. Aircraft can compute an estimate of its
position error
• RNP 5/ Basic RNAV: Accuracy +/- 5 NM 95% of flight time
• AR: Authorization required
• 2D: Horizontal
3D: Horizontal & vertical
4D: Horizontal, vertical & time
• 5 dot HSI:
- En-route: 1 dot = 1NM
- Approach: 1 dot = 0.25NM
- VOR: 1 dot = 2°
- Localiser: 1 dot = 0.5°
- Glide slope: 1 dot = 0.14°
• 2 dot HSI:
- En-route: 1 dot = 2NM
- Approach: 1 dot = 0.5NM

2D RNAV
• Uses navigation computer which solves basic sin/cosine trigonometry, calculates & uses auto
computed values, cross track error, distance to go & desired course for tracking on CDI/HSI
• Phantom station: A waypoint defined by radial & distance of a VOR/DME
• VOR/DME does not have to be in range when entered, but must be when in use
• Errors: When in limit range at low altitudes (When near DME slant range error)

4D RNAV
• Cross track distance is distance between actual position & great circle track between active waypoints,
displayed by ND,CDU & HSI
• Position of waypoints entered via Lat/long, alphanumeric ICAO identifier or radial & distance
• Selection/entering of the flight plan can only done manually by pilot using the CDU
• Dead reckoning mode inputs TAS, heading & last computed W/V, occurs when only one VOR
information is used or when radial or distance information is not received
• Wind vector calculated from heading of INS/IRS/compass system & TAS from ADC
• ETO: Estimated time over significant point
• Rho: DME, Theta: VOR
• Question tips:
 - Differentiate between LATERAL & VERTICAL functions
- Differentiate between INPUTS & OUTPUTS of 4D RNAV

FMS
• Total system error: position error in a (NPA) non-precision approach = +/- 0.3NM at 95% probability
for final approach section
• GNSS updates FMS position for drifting IRS
• Symbol generator (SG) generates visual display on EFIS
• INPUTS:
- DME distance & radials
- TAS & altitude from ADC
- Heading from heading system
• OUTPUTS:
- Distance to waypoint
- Estimated time overhead (ETO)
- GS & TAS
- Wind vector/true wind
- Track error
• XTK – Cross track is abeam distance error left or right of desired flight plan leg
– Distance between actual position & great circle line between two active waypoints

FMS design
• Weather/radar returns can be displayed on expanded VOR/ILS/NAV & MAP modes
• Colours:
- Armed or CURRENT data and values = White (ArCu)
- Engaged or SELECTED data and values = Green
- Selected heading = Magenta
- Active route / Active flight plan = Magenta
- Aircraft symbol = White
- Sky = Blue/Cyan
- Caution = Yellow
- Warning/system limits = Red
- Turbulence = Magenta
• Waypoint input formats: Bearing/distance, bearing/bearing, ALONG track distance & latitude&
longitude
• Failure of VOR: CRS, deviation bar & pointer is removed from display
• Kalman filtering: Used in FMS & NAVIGATION SYSTEM

Satellites
Name SATs Planes Height(Km) Inclination(°) Model Orbit time(Hrs)
GLONASS 24 3 19 100 65 PZ – 90 11
GPS 24 6 20 200 55 WGS – 84 (Ellipsoid) 12
GALILEO 30 3 23 222 56 14
• Two UHF frequencies – L1: C/A & P codes at 1575MHz for civilian use
– L2: P codes at 1227MHz for military use only
• ICAO accuracy limits: 95%, 13m or 9m horizontally, 15m vertically
• Phase modulation, uses helical antennas for circular polarization
• Principle of TIME:
 - Distance/delay between SAT & receiver = time x speed of light
- Information in the form of spheres (orbit nearly circular) with satellite at the middle,
- Position line can be obtained by timing period taken for a satellite transmission to reach receiver.
- Position fix uses more than one
• Pseudo range: Includes clock error, clock bias satellite time correction of receiver clock (By using 4
satellites)
• PRN: Code for ident of one satellite & measurement of time for signal to reach receiver, PSEUDO =
fake, calculated range includes receiver clock error
• Receiver most suitable: Multichannel
• Selective availability (S/A): Degrades GPS by manipulating/dithering satellite signals
• RAIM: Integrity monitoring of satellites within the receiver to ensure accurate navigation, can detect
& identify which satellite is faulty. If a GPS receiver is using altitude augmentation for RAIM, number
of SAT can be reduced by one
• Altitude information when using GPS is barometric altitude
• Mask angle = 5° or 7.5°, denies any receiver use of SAT below mask angle
• GPS most accurate with 3 SAT at low elevation in 120° azimuth & one directly overhead
• “All in view”: Tracking more than 4 required satellites, all within receiver’s mask angle & can easily
replace any lost signal
• “Search the sky”: Starts if there is no stored satellite data available. Approximately: 12.5 minutes
• GPS has 4 clocks: 2 rubidium & 2 hydrogen clocks. NOT identical & NOT synchronized to each other.
However, clocks of the satellites are synchronized with clocks on the ground (control segment)
• Aerial installed on top of fuselage above COG
• Galileo:
- Frequency: 1164-1215MHz, 1260-1300MHz, 1559-1591MHz
- Has a new method of spectrum spread signals
- 3 sections: Timing, signal generation & transmit
• Number of satellites:
- 3: 2D fix
- 4: 3D fix & correction of receiver clock error
- 5: 3D fix with RAIM capability with exclusion of faulty SAT
- 6: 3D fix with RAIM capability with no exclusion of faulty SAT
• Navigation message includes 5 data:
1. Almanac:
- For fast identification of received signals from visible satellites
- Contains elevation & azimuth data which will be computed by the receiver
- Orbital data of all SAT
2. Ephemeris:
- Position & orbit of that satellite
3. Satellite clock/UTC correction parameters:
- Difference between UTC & GPS/satellite time
- Correction of SATELLITE time only
- Offset of satellite clock from UTC
4. Ionospheric model/delays:
- To calculate the delay of GPS signals
5. Satellite health & status data
• Segments:
1. Control:
- Ensures transmitted data is controlled & updated from time to time
- Sends new ephemeris & sat clock error data to GPS
 - Consists of master control stations, monitor stations & ground antennas
2. Space:
- Transmits signals to receivers to determine time, position & velocity
3. User:
- Auto selects appropriate satellite,
- Track signals & measure time taken by signals from satellite to reach the receiver
- Determines elevation & azimuth data of satellite by calculating using almanac data in nav message
• Errors:
1. Ionospheric: Minimised by comparing L1 & L2, reduced by using a model of the ionosphere, it
is the most significant error
2. Ephemeris: Solar winds, gravity of sun/moon/planets
3. Dilution of precision: Loss of fix accuracy due to relative position of satellites
4. GPS not within accuracy limits: Flight continued by conventional navigation
5. Shadowing: Of aircraft e.g. wing prevents reception of signal
6. Path delay is proportional to the inverse of the carrier frequency squared
7. Receiver clock error: Corrected by using four satellites

GBAS/LAAS/DGPS
• Frequency is in VHF band of ILS & VOR systems
• Coverage: 30km, 15NM from threshold within 35° on final approach and 10° between 20NM – 15NM
• The nearer/closer the receiver is to a DGPS/LAAS ground reference station, the more accurate the
position fix
• Does NOT account for multipath effects
• Sends error corrections for Ionospheric & tropospheric delays, integrity data, and approach data for
more than one runway
• GBAS signal sent to receiver and modifies vertical & horizontal guidance corrections
• Does not transmit receiver clock error
• GLS more precise navigation within airfield vicinity than ILS
• Services:
- Precision approach service: Deviation guidance for final approach segments
- Positioning service: Horizontal position information to support RNAV operation in terminal areas

SBAS/WAAS/WADGPS
• Frequency same as GNSS, UHF
• 3 elements: Ground receiver (Measures signal errors & transmits them to satellites), receiver in
aircraft & geostationary satellites (These satellites are called INMARSAT, operate in UHF & can be used
as navigation satellites with their own PRN codes)
• Pseudo range correction for certain satellite is split up into ephemeris error (Gravitational), satellite
clock error (noise & clock drift) & Ionospheric error (atmosphere)
• Covers more area than GBAS
• Provides approach & landing operations with vertical guidance, for precision approaches
• Improves integrity by updating receiver within 6 seconds instead of 3 hours
• WAAS: USA, EGNOS: Europe, GAGAN: India, MSAS: Japan

ABAS
Includes Aircraft autonomous integrity monitoring (AAIM) which depends on additional onboard systems
and on information from GNSS (To summarize: It doesn’t use SAT provided altitude)

Difference between SBAS & GBAS

GBAS ground stations transmits corrections to receiver, SBAS ground stations transmits correction to
navigation satellites

PBN
• RNP is not sensor specific
• Components: navigational aid infrastructure, navigation specification & navigation application
• Provides both linear & angular lateral guidance during approach
• Raw data: From navigation aids & measured air data
• Performance requirements: Accuracy, integrity & accuracy
• Oceanic/remote, ENR, terminal phases limited to operations with linear lateral performance
requirements & time constraints
• Difference between RNP & RNAV: RNP includes on-board performance & alerting
• Aircraft approved for more stringent requirements may not necessarily meet requirements for less
stringent navigation specification requirements
• Fly-by: Waypoint requiring turn anticipation to allow tangential interception of next segment
• Fly-over: Waypoint where turn is initiated to join next segment
• RNP to LNAV minima only is considered a NPA
• RNAV 10 requires 2 long range navigation systems, INS, IRS/FMS or GNSS
• IF there is discrepancy between navigation database & procedures, pilots must NOT fly RNP APCH

Type Phase
RNP APCH/AR APCH Approach
RNP 0.3 All except oceanic, remote & approaches
RNAV & RNP 1 Arrivals & departures (SIDs & STARs)
RNAV 2 En-route, arrival & departure
RNP 2 En-route, oceanic & remote
RNAV 5 En-route, arrival
RNAV 10 & RNP 4 (Extended by updating) Oceanic & remote
A - RNP Includes everything

Errors:
1. Path definition error (PDE): Desired path does not correspond to defined RNAV path
2. Flight technical error (FTE): Accuracy of the crew flying the path
3. Navigation system error (NSE): Differences between estimated & true position, coordinates
4. Total system error (TSE): Sum of all errors

Path terminators: Specific type of termination of previous path

- IF: Initial fix
- TF: Track fix
- CF: Course to fix
- DF: Direct to fix
- FA: Fix to altitude
- CA: Course to altitude
- RF: Radius to fix - curved terminal or approach section defined by a fix, radius and arc length
- FRT: Fixed radius turn for en-route/approach sections
Instrument Wavelength Frequency Range
MLS (TRSB) Centimetric SHF 5.03-5.09GHz +/- 40° & 20NM
AWR Centimetric SHF 9375MHz Fan beam = 60NM, Pencil > 60NM
Aerodrome surface movement radar Centimetric SHF 6NM
Low altitude radio altimeter (FM) Centimetric (2 aerials) SHF 4200-4400MHz 2500ft
High altitude radio altimeter (FM) Decimetric (2 aerials) UHF 4200-4400MHz 5000ft
Aerodrome surveillance radar Decimetric UHF 25NM
Terminal area radar Decimetric UHF 80NM
Long range radar Decimetric (1 aerial) UHF 200 – 300NM [Power x16]
GPS/SBAS (Phase modulated) Decimetric UHF
DME (Pulse modulated) Decimetric UHF 960-1125MHz 200NM
ILS glideslope (AM) Decimetric UHF 108-112MHz 10NM:8° (Captured at 3 – 10NM)
ILS localiser (AM) Metric VHF(Odd) 108-112MHz 25NM:10° 17NM:35°
GBAS Metric VHF 108-112MHz 30km
Marker Beacon Metric VHF 75MHz OM:4NM/MM:0.6NM/IM:0.04NM
VHF radio/ VDF Metric VHF 118-136MHz 1.23 x (√T Height + √R Height )
CVOR (AM)/ DVOR (FM) Metric VHF(Even) 108-118MHz
HF communications/VOLMET (AM) Hectometric HF Suitable for Polar areas
Locator Hectometric/Kilometric LF/MF 10 – 25NM
NDB/ADF [Power x4] Hectometric/Kilometric LF/MF 190-1750KHz Land=2√Power Sea=3√Power