POF

General:

Bernoulli: Sum of all energy constant

3
Temperature ~ density(rho)[kg/m ]
Density ∝ mass
Density ∝ pressure
Density does not vary in venturi
Density decrease as humidity increase
Temp ↑ mass flow ↓
2
Dynamic pressure [q]( N/m )
1 2
= / 2 ρV(TAS)
Dynamic press = 0 when speed = 0
Static + dynamic = constant
p/(rho*T) = Constant

• SI units:
- Weight (Newton) = Force = Mass(kg) x acceleration
- Power (Nm/s) = Watts (W) Force x distance ÷ time (J/s) [There is time]
- Work = Joule
2
- Force [kg.m/s ]= m x a
2
- Wing loading[W/S](N/m ): Weight of aircraft ÷ area of the wings
• Density decrease with increase in humidity (Dry air = better performance)
• Mean geometric chord: Wing area ÷ wing span
Difference between MAC & mean camber line
Relative thickness: Expressed in % chord
Symmetrical airfoil: 0 camber, mean camber line = chord line
& lift characteristics as the actual wing
• Aeroplane AOA: Angle between speed vector & longitudinal axis
Wing AOA: Angle between longitudinal axis & wing root chord line
Angle of incidence: Angle between wing root chord line & longitudinal axis
Dihedral angle:
- Angle between wing plane & the horizontal with aeroplane in an unbanked , level condition
- Angle between the 0.25 chord line of the wing and the lateral axis
• Lift & drag forces depend on the pressure distribuition around the aerofoil cross section
• Lift = Component of total aerodynamic force perpendicular to the undisturbed airflow

2D airflow over an aerofoil

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• Typical C L /C D ratio: Max at angle of attack of 4
• Lift:
- Upwash ahead of the wing & downwash behind
- Downwash increase: Lift generated by the aerofoil increases
- Upper surface produces greatest proportion of lift at all speeds
- Generated when the flow direction of a certain mass of air is changed
• Stagnation point:
- Static pressure maximum value
- Relative velocity = 0
• AOA
- Decrease: Stagnation point moves forward /up, lowest pressure(CP) moves aft, COP moves aft
- Increase: Stagnation point moves down, lowest pressure(CP) moves forward, COP moves forward until crit AOA
• Aerodynamic centre of an aerofoil:
- Approx 25% chord irrespective/independent of AOA
- Assume no flow separation, pitching moment coefficient does not change with carying angle of attack
 - Where instantaneous variation in wing lift acts
- Don’t mix up aerodynamic centre with centre of pressure
• Centre of pressure:
- Does not change on symmetric airfoils
- Moves forward as AOA increase
• Streamlines:
- Speed increases: Area of condensed streamlines moves to the back (In the direction of trailing edge), COP moves aft
- Speed decreases: COP moves forward & total lift force is constant
- Streamlines converge: Static pressure decreases & velocity increases
- Streamlines diverge: Stati pressure increases & velocity decreases
- Airflow accelerates over wing when generating lift
• Drag:
- Total drag: Pressure drag & skin friction drag
- Profile drag proportional to square of the relative velocity of the air & drag coefficient

Coefficients:
• Positively cambered airfoil: C L = 0, pitching moment down, negative AOA
Negatively cambered airfoil: C L = 0, pitching moment up, positive AOA
Symmetric airfoil: AOA = 0, pitching moment = 0, there is only drag but no lift
• Swept vs unswept: Swept has less lift at AOA
• Lift/aerodynamic force:
1 2
- / 2 ρV SC L Above & left of origin
- q(dynamic pressure) x S x C L
2 2
- (V S ) C LMAX = (V) C L [V = actual speed & C L = actual lift coefficient]
2 1 2
- When speed increases by a ratio = Lift = ratio , C L = / ratio
- C L is directly affected by AOA Below & right of origin
1 2
• Drag = / 2 ρV SC D [S = reference area, C D = Drag coefficient]
- Minimum when C L /C D ratio is maximum
• Coefficient of lifts & drag affected by camber & AOA only
• Parabolic curve: Minimum glide angle & parasite drag coefficient
• Aerofoil polar graph: C L /C D , shows max ratio(Total drag lowest) & max C L
• AOA is unaffected by density
IAS & TAS:
• Assuming no compressibility effects & straight & level flight with same AOA:
- TAS is higher at higher altitudes
- IAS is constant with altitude, C L must be constant as density is changed hence AOA the same

3D airflow over an aeroplane

• Spanwise component
- Added compared to 2D airflow
- Airflow on the upper surface flows to root, lower surface to wingtip
• Wing tip vortices:
- Increase as AOA increase
- Descrease as aspect ratio increase
- Highest at take-off
- Vortex waves gradually descends to a lower level
- Vortex forms on rotation & ends when noswheel touches down
• Aspect ratio:
- Increase: Induced drag & crit AOA decrease
- Increase: Max lift lift/drag ratio increase
- Decreases: when flaps are deployed
• Induced drag:
- Induced AOA: A result of downwash due to tip vortices
- Caused by wing tip vortices & downwash
- Reduced by installing wing tip tank
- Strongest at wing tips
- Increases as AOA increase
- Increases airplane mass increase (Higher mass = higher AOA)
- Decreases as speed increases (See curve)
- Decreases when flaps are deployed
2
- C Di = (C L ) ÷ π x AR
2
- C Di = 1 ÷ V
1 2
- D i = / 2 ρV SC Di
• Parasite drag:
- Form + profile + skin friction + interference + pressure drag
- Increases when wing tip tank installed
• Interference drag:
- Aerodynamic interference between parts of the aeroplane
• Form drag:
- Reduced by streamlining, however skin friction drag increases
• Speed stable:
- Tendency to return to original speed after gust, speed is disturbed from its trimmed value tends to return to the
original speed
- Speed unstable: No tendency to return to original speed

Ground effect:
• Airborne before reaching recommended take-off speed, floating
• Height is less than half of the length of the wingspan above the surface
• Affects low wing & low tailplane aircraft most
• Enetering ground effect
- Lift coefficient increases
- Effective AOA increases
- Induced AOA decreases
- Downwash angle decreases
- Induced drag coefficient C Di decreases

Stall:
• Load factor(Lift ÷ weight):
- Load factor >1, lift more than weight
- Load factor <1, lift less than weight, steady climb
- & AOA increases when pulling out from a dive
• Airflow characteristics:
- Boundary layer: Layer of air on wing stream velocity lower than free stream velocity
- Transition point: Transition from laminar to turbulent layer
- Airflow seperation: Airflow reversal on the surface of the body
• Stall characteristics:
- There is a large reduction in lift but it does not drop to zero
- COG more forward: Stall speed higher, AOA unaffected
- COG moves aft: More difficult for stall recovery
- COP moves aft approaching stall on rectangular wings
- COP moves fwd approaching stall on swept wings
- Rectangular wings: Just before stall has a nose-down tendency
• Stall speed:
- Stall speed increases with the square root of load factor,
- Increases during turns, increase of mass/weight, forward CG location, icing conditions & decreasing thrust
- Decrease with flaps
- Wing with back sweep has higher tendency to stall, increasing sweep back increases stall speed
- Determined by CG at forward limit, min control speeds determined when CG at aft limit
- Does not change with IAS, but changes with TAS at altitude
- IAS stall speed constant at lower altitudes, increases at higher altitudes due to compressibility (More correct)
- IAS stall speed increase at higher altitudes (More correct)
• Stall formulas:
- V s new = V s old x [√(1/cos ɸ new) ÷ (1/cos ɸ old)]
- V s new = V s old x √(New weight ÷ old weight)
- Stall speed increase by a factor of √[1÷cos(bank angle)] = √n
• Super/deep stall:
- Stable stall with almost constant pitch attitude
- Swept wings has highest probability of a super stall
- Negative tail stall: Uncontrollable pitch down moment (Tailplane no longer producing down force)
- Largest AOA
• Accelerated stall:
- Stall at high load factors (Turning/dive), stalling at higher speeds
- Stall speed increase with square root of load factor
- Stall due to increase in load factor
• Spin:
- Spin recovery: PARE
- Both wings are stalled
• Stall warning:
- Vane flapper switch activated by change of stagnation point
- Stagnation point moves downwards & flapper switch moves upwards
- Installed just below the leading edge
• Stall protection:
- Stick shakers activates at a lower AOA, before stick pushers, at speeds higher than V S
- Stick shaker input: AOA & rate of change of AOA
- Stick pusher push the stick forward at or beyond a certain value of angle of attack
- Wing fences reduce spanwise flow, low speed handling characteristics
- Stall strip/fixed spoiler: On leading edge, induces root stall, ensures root of wing stalls before the tip
• Critical angle of attack(A fixed value):
- Aspect ratio increases, critical angle of attack decrease
- CP will reach its most forward point at the stalling angle
- Affected by design of wing & aspect ratio only
o
• Stall angle unaffected by turn. Approximately 16
• Low speed pitch:
- Forward movement of CP (Wing tips stalls first),of swept back wings, outward drift of the boundary layer
- Nose – up pitching moment

Maximum value of L/D ratio

most efficient ratio

Augmentation/high lift devices:

o o
• Clean configuration: Highest C L /C D ratio. 30 – 45 flaps adversely effects ratio
• Trailing edge flaps:
- Critical AOA decreases when flap is deployed Or slots

- Increases C LMAX
- Increase effective AOA, increase stall AOA
- CP moves to the rear/aft (Inboard towards wing root)
- When deployed creates a nose down tendency, aircraft tendency to climb
- When retracted aircraft has tendency to sink
- Flaps are installed inboard (Near root)
- Increase lift at low AOA: L/D ratio decreases
- Maximum glide distance decreases, degrades minimum glide angle
- Deployed while keeping AOA constant: C L & C D increases
- Maintaining level flight, constant IAS flaps deployed:
• C L eventually remains the same
• Nose must be lowered & thrust increased
- Maintaining level flight, constant IAS flaps retracted:
• AOA is increased
- During approaches to land:
• Provides same amount of lift at a slower speed
1. Plain flap:
- Increase C LMAX by increasing camber
2. Fowler flaps:
- Most effective
 - Moves aft then turns down
- Increase wing area & camber
3. Slotted flaps:
- Increasing camber & re-energize flow through slots
• Krueger leading edge flap:
- Part of the lower surface of the leading edge, hinged at its forward edge
• Slat:
- Critical AOA increases when slat is deployed
- Increases C LMAX more than it causes yawing moment
- Large decrease in stall speed with relatively less drag
- Slats are installed outboard (Near tips)
- Higher contribuition to C LMAX than flaps at any position, greater effect on stall speed than flaps
- Increase boundary layer energy at the suction peak (fixed point), postponing stall to higher AOA using venturi effect
- An auxiliary leading edge device cambered aerofoil positioned forward of the main aerofoil so as to form a slot
- Automatically operated by aerodynamic forces acting on the leading edge, when a certain AOA is reached
• Vortex generators:
- Delays stall by reducing boundary layer separation, installed near wing leading edge
- Re-energize boundary layer
- Transfer energy from the free airflow into the boundary layer
• Tailplane:
- Increased downwash at tailplane = Increased negative lift (Downward lift of tailplane), producing a pitch up moment
(Which opposes wing pitch down moment at wings upon flap deployment), and increasing effectiveness of the tailplane
(More airflow over the tailplane & control surfaces)
• Asymmetric flaps:
- Flap asymmetry causes rolling, slat asymmetry causes difference in C LMAX or yawing moment
- Slightly asymmetric flaps: Causes a steady rate of roll which may be correctable with ailerons

• Spoilers:
- Roll spoilers: Reduces lift on a part of wing, generating the desired rolling moment. There is a local increase in drag
which supresses adverse yaw
- Spoiler extension increases the stall speed, the min rate of descent (ROD) & min angle of descent
- Symmetrically deflected spoilers: Decelerate aeroplane/decrease ROD, may be used as speed brakes during flight
- Speed brakes increase drag in order to maintain a steeper gradient of descent, spoilers may be used as speed brakes
- AOA constant, spoilers deployed: C D increases & C L decreases
- Flight level & speed constant: C D increases & C L unaffected (More correct)
- Air brakes reduce min drag speed
- Wing spoiler extension causes an increase in drag & decrease in lift
• Boundary layers:
• Laminar:
- Less change in velocity close to surface
- Lesser mean speed
- Friction drag lower
- Thinner
- More tendency to separate from the surface
- Less kinetic energy than turbulent layer
- No velocity components exist normal to surface
• Turbulent:
- More change in velocity close to surface
- More mean speed
- Friction drag higher
- Thicker
- Less tendency to separate from the surface
- More kinetic energy than laminer layer
- Compared with laminar layer, a turbulent boundary layer is better able to resist a positive pressure gradient before it
separates
• Skin friction drag:
- Increases with age
- Ageing causes the transition point to move forward & larger part is turbulent
• Icing:
- Frost: Decrease in lift & an increase in drag
- Increases landing distance up to 40 – 50%
- Most critical during rotation
- Ice accretion causes reduction in C LMAX , increase of drag
 - AOA & controllability are going to decrease stall speed is going to increase
- Decreased critical AOA

High speed aerodynamics:

• Speed of sound(a) = √(y x R x T) [y = specific heat, R = universal gas constant, T =Absolute temperature]
Local speed of sound(LSS) = 38.95x √Absolute temp(K)
o
Local speed of sound(LSS) estimate = 644 ÷ 1.2(TAT in C)
• Mach number: Ratio of TAS to LSS of the undisturbed flow, TAS ÷ LSS, affects compressibility
• Subsonic speed:
- Up to M CRIT
• Transonic speed:
- Speed when both supersonic & subsonic speed exists around the aircraft
- The region around mach 1, M CRIT – M1.3
- Rearward shift of CP is M0.89 – 0.98
- Aeroplane characteristic depends heavily on mach number
- C D increases then decreases
- C LMAX will decrease & 1G stalling speed increases
- Increased static longitudinal stability
• Supersonic speed:
- CP further aft during supersonic flight compared to subsonic
- Aerofoil pressure distibuition is rectangular
- M1.3 – M5
• Below tropopause: ECTM
• Above tropopause: Temperature constant so LSS/TAS/Mach is constant
• Coefficient of lift (C L ) above & below tropopause has the same effect:
- Descending: C L decrease, pitch angle & AOA decreasing due to increasing IAS caused by increasing density
- Climbing: C L increase, pitch angle & AOA increasing due to reducing IAS caused by decreasing density
• Operational limit: M MO (Mach exceeded when climbing at constant TAS/IAS)
Operational speed limitation: V MO (TAS/IAS exceeded while descending at constant Mach)
• Key point: At constant flight level, temperature increase/decrease affects TAS only, Mach no. etc. is not affected

Shock waves:
• General:
- Mach = 1 ÷ sin(angle)
- Increasing mass increases shockwave intensity
- Shockwave moves slightly aft in front of a downward deflecting aileron
- Shockwave moves aft towards trailing edge on upper surface as mach no. increases
- Centre of pressure moves aft to 20% -50% mid chord towards direction of the trailing edge
- Loss of pressure in a shock wave is due to kinetic energy in the flow is changed to heat energy
- The first evidence of a shockwave appears in the upper side of the wing, at the wing root, near to the point of
maximum wing thickness
o
- Perpendicular to the local airflow, it is normal to the local airflow (90 )
- The front of a shockwave travels at the speed of the ground speed of the airplane
• Normal shock wave:
- Higher compression
- Highest efficiency when shock wave is small but supersonic
- Least energy lost is when the mach is just above mach 1
- Can occur at different points on the airplane in transonic flight
- Changes from supersonic to subsonic < Mach 1
- Higher loss in total pressure compared to oblique
• Oblique shock waves:
- Velocity decreases but airflow remains supersonic
• Expansion wave:
- Velocity ncreased to supersonic (M)
• Mach conical cone:
- Cone angle decreases as mach number increases
- All disturbances produced by an airplane are within this zone depending on mach number
• Bow wave:
- Appears just above Mach = 1
 Total temperature & pressure Mach & speed Static temperature & pressure Density LSS
In front Higher Higher Lower Lower Lower
Oblique wave
Behind Lower Lower Higher Higher Higher
In front - Lower Higher Higher Higher
Expansion wave
Behind - Higher Lower Lower Lower

Effects of exceeding M CRIT

• Tuck under:
- Nose down pitching tendency when entering the transonic range
- Reduction in downwash at the horizontal stabiliser
- Occurs only above the M CRIT
• Mach trim:
- Required as at transonic speeds airplane has decrease in longitudinal stick force stability
- CAUSE: Stick force stablity decreases but static longitudinal stability increases
- EFFECT: Mach trim maintains the required stick force gradient
- Mach trimmer system failure: Mach number must be reduced
- Adjusted by pitch up input of the stabilizer according to mach number
- Adjusted by decreasing incidence of trimmable airplane (Stabilizer), [NOT elevator trim tab]
- Adjusted by trim tank, moving fuel towards the tail
• M CRIT Critical mach number:
- Local sonic speed (Not a shockwave) M1 is first reached on the upper surface of the wing
- Above which, locally, supersonic flow exists somewhere over the aeroplane
- L/D ratio decreases
- M CRIT increases when mass decreases, as a result of lower AOA
- M CRIT decreases when mass increases, when deflecting control surface down (Aileron, increased camber accelerate
upper flow)
- No shockwaves < M CRIT
- Above M CRIT , stick force stability decreases due to the loss of lift in the wing root area
- Above M CRIT, buffeting occurs with a tendency to pitch down
• M CDR Critical drag rise/ drag divergence mach number:
- Greater than M CRIT
- Determined by angle of attack & profile of the aerofoil
- C D increases rapidly after M CDR
- Increased drag is due to wave drag
• Stall:
- Stall speed increases at higher altitudes due to increasing compressibility effects as a result of increasing mach number
Shock stall: Separation of the boundary layer at the shock waves
- Shock stall has lowest AOA
- Shock stall occurs when the lift coefficient, as a function of mach number reaches its maximum value
- Shock induced separation results in decreasing lift, can occur behind a strong normal shockwave ranging from low to
high AOA
• Effect on control surfaces:
- Aileron deflection less effective during transonic flight: It only partly affects the pressure distribuition around the wing
- Rapid fluctuation of hinge moments causing high frequency buzz

Buffet:
• High speed buffet:
- Induced by interaction between shock wave motion & flow separation
- Boundary layer separation due to shock wave formation
• Graph: Values at which low speed & mach buffet occurs at different weights & altitudes
• Buffet free ranges: Speed range between low & high buffet
- Decreases as altitude increases
- Decreases as mass increases
- Decreases as load factor increases
- Decreases in a pull manouvre (Higher load factor)
- Increases in a push manouvre (Lower AOA)
- Not affected by speed
• 1.3g load safety margin:
- A manouvre with load factor 1.3g will cause buffet onset
- Max cruise alt limited to 1.3g as exceeding that will cause:
Turbulence induced high/low speed buffet
• V A less significant at high cruising altitudes as buffet onset limitations become limiting
• Coffin corner: Stall speed = critical mach number, speed is too low & too high at the same time

M CRIT influence
• Sweepback:
- Appearance of shockwaves: Decreased velocity of air perpendicular to the leading edge
- M CRIT Increases with sweepback
- M CDR (Drag divergence mach number) increases with sweepback
- Straight wing vs sweepback: 1.154 times increase of M CRIT theoretically but half that value practically
- Slower onset of transonic drag rise
- Higher C D in-flight
- Lesser effectiveness of high life devices (Flaps etc.) as sweepback is increased
• Thickness/chord ratio:
- Reduced: Delays onset of shock wave, reduces transonic variations in lift & drag coeffcients C L /C D
- Thin aerofoils increases M CRIT
- Thick aerofoil & high AOA decreases/lowers M CRIT
• Area ruling:
- Gives aircraft smooth cross-sectional area distribuition
- Decreases wave drag
- Gives “waist” or “coke bottle” shape
• Camber: Larger camber gives lower M CRIT
• Supercritical aerofoil:
- Larger nose radius, flatter upper surface & with negative as well as positive camber
- Allows a wing of relative thickness to be used for approximately the same cruise Mach number
- Shows no noticeable shockwaves when flying just above M CRIT
• Vortex generators
- Decrease wave drag
- Decrease shockwave induced separation
- Reduce boundary layer separation drag when shockwaves form

Stability:
• For there to be a condition of dynamic stability (Positive/neutral/negative), it must have positive static stability first
• For a plane to have dynamic stability it needs static stability & sufficient damping
• Tends to return: Positive static stability, initial tendency to return to equilibrium
• Returns: Positive dynamic stability
• Less stability = more manoeuvrability & vice versa
• Sum of moments about one axis is not = 0:
- An angular acceleration about that axis exists
- Aeroplane starts to rotate about its centre of gravity

Longitudinal stability(Around lateral axis):

• Transport aircraft load factor limit: 2.5G
• Positive static longitudinal stability: Nose down moment occurs after an upgust
• Phugoid:
- Slow changes in speed & altitude
- Dynamic longitudinal stability
- Altitude varies significantly
- Speed varies significantly
- Can be easily controlled by the pilot
- Long period of weak damping
• Short period oscillation:
- Altitude remains approximately constant
- Speed remains approximately constant
- Should always be heavily dampened
• Directly influenced by centre of gravity (CG):
- Aft CG limit: Determined by minimum acceptable static longitudinal stability, minimum value of the stick force per G
- Fwd CG limit: Limited by insufficient flare capability & insufficient in-flight manouevrability, minimum control response
- Neutral point: Aircraft become longitudinally unstable when CG is shifted beyond this point
- CG static margin: Distance between CG datum & CG neutral point
- Magnitude of stick force determined by distance the CG is forward of the neutral point
• Contribuitions to static longitudinal stability :
- Engine nacelles aft of CG have positive contribution to static longitudinal stability
- Wing contribuition depends on CG location relative to the wing aerodynamic centre
May be negative, also with flaps
 - Wing downwash: Negative
- Fuselage: Negative contribution to static longitudinal stability
- Horizontal stabilizer surface area increase: Increased longitudinal stability
- Tailplane: Greatest contribuition to longtudinal stability (Positive effect)
• CG location ahead of CP, gives downward vertical load
• CG location behind CP, gives upwards tail loading
- Trim tabs have no effect on longitudinal stability
- Positive/negative camber has no effect
• Centre of pressure:
- Always aft of CG when tailplane is producing down load
- AOA increase changes total aeroplane lift aft of CG
- CP moves fwd: Pitch up moment
- CP aft of CG, tailplane has downward load
- CP fwd of CG, taiplane has upward load
• Manouevre stability/stick force per G:
- Increases as CG moves fwd
- It is not manouevrability, it is stick force per G, reduced as CG moves aft
- Manouvre point (Where wing lift = tail lift) is aft of neutral point
• Stick force gradient: Force required to change the load factor of the aircraft a given amount
• Stick force stability:
- Affected by bob weights & down spring
- Bob weights: Pulls the stick forward when there is sufficient stick force per G
- Increases as CG moves fwd
- Static stick force stability: Maintain a speed above the trim speed requires a push force
- Static stick force stability: Maintain a speed below the trim speed requires a pull force
- High limit load factor allows lower stick force per G
- Stick force per G is not a limitation on an aircraft, it is dependent on CG location
- Stick force per G is dependent on altitude (Higher force at lower altitudes) & CG location
- Stick force per G must have an upper & lower limit in order to assure acceptable control characteristics
• Stick position stability:
- Is always constant irregardless of trim
• Damping:
- Damping in all axes is reduced as altitude gets higher
- Slows down the rate or diminishes the amplitude of vibrations or cycles
• Flight phases:
- During slow flight,
• Least lift created to keep plane flying level occurs at an aft CG (High AOA) & high thrust settings
• Most lift created to keep plane flying level occurs at an fwd CG (Low AOA) & low thrust setting
- During landing max elevator deflection required when flaps are down and CG is at fwd limit
• Effective angle of attack:
- Nose up pitch displacement: Effective AOA changes & causes the tail plane to apply a nose down moment

Directional stability(Around normal axis):

• Tendency of an aeroplane to recover from a skid without control input from the pilot
• Contribuitions:
- Positive: Mainly by the fin
- Positive: Swept back wings
- Positive: Dorsal fins maintains static directional stability at large sideslip angles
- Positive: Ventral fin (Negative effect on lateral, no effect on longitudinal)
- Negligible: Straight wings with high aspect ratio
• Sideslip angle:
- Angle between speed vector & the plane of symmetry
• Sideslip with relative airflow from the left
- Initial tendency of nose to move left (Yaw left)
- Initial tendency of right wing to move down

Lateral stability(Around longitudinal axis):

• Determined by aircrafts response to sideslip (Tendency to roll left with airplane nose pointing left of incoming flow)
• Sideslip: Banking in one directon & rudder in opposite direction. (Right sideslip = right wing down & left rudder)
• Effective dihedral on an airplane component: Contribution of that component to the static lateral stability
• Neutral lateral stability: Following a wing drop, wing would remain in its displaced position
• Excessive lateral stability is undesirable as:
 - It would impose excessive demands on roll control during a sideslip
- Too much aileron deflection is required during a crosswind landing
• Increased by:
- Wing sweepback, main function is to increase M CRIT , but has a positive contribuition to lateral stability
- Dihedral, to increase dihedral is to increase the stick force, required lateral control force increases
- Increasing aspect ratio
- Having high wing
• Decreased by:
- Anhedral
- Forward sweep
- Flap extension
- Low wing mounting
- Ventral fin
• Advantage of horizontal stabilizer on top of vertical fin (T-tail): Improved aerodynamic efficiency of the vertical fin
• When lateral stability is increased, lateral control force should increase to counter stability

Lateral & directional:

• Dutch roll:
- Combined lateral & directional periodic motion
- Sensitivity increased: Lateral stability increase
- Reduced by increasing anhedral angle of the wings (Decreasing lateral stability)
• Spiral dive:
- Combined lateral & directional aperiodic motion
- Directional stability positive/more excessive & lateral stability weak
- Spirally unstable: A condition when, during a level turn, bank steadily increases
• Increasing altitude:
- Constant IAS: Lateral stability increase, directional stability decrease
- Constant Mach: Lateral stability the same, directional stability decrease
• Yaw damper failure: Counteract dutch roll by reducing altitude & mach number

Control:
• Aeroplane manouevrability decreases for a given control surface deflection when IAS decreases
Aeroplane manouevrability increases for a given control surface deflection when IAS increases
• Control surface deflection decreases when IAS increases, when load factor decreases
Control surface deflection increases when IAS decrease, when load factor increases
• Pitch angle: Angle between longitudinal axis & the horizontal plane (Flight path angle + AOA)
• Bank angle: Angle between lateral axis & horizontal plane

Pitch control:
• Thrust line is below CG when increase in power has a nose up tendency
• Lowering of landing gear, due to increased nose down moment, down load on tailplane needs to be increased
• During flare too much longitudinal stability = Higher control forces & higher V REF (1.3 stalling speed)
• Low speed pitch up: Possible with podded engines located beneath a low mounted wing
• Trimmable horizontal stabiliser: Correct setting determined by CG position
• Variable incidence tailplane(Not fixed):
- Advantage: Less trim drag & maximum elevator authority retained
- Backward movement = Decrease in tail incidence & nose up pitch
• Engines rear of fuselage:
- Compared to engines beneath wing: Less influence on longitudinal control of thrust changes
- Fairings of tail mounted engines give positive pitching moment (Pitch up)
- Longitudinal trim is less affected by changes in thrust
• Elevator deflection:
- Smaller at high IAS compared to low IAS
- Larger at lower IAS compared to high IAS
- Decreases with decrease in load factor
- Increases with increase in load factor
• Stabilizer:
- Contributes to the total lift of the plane
- May stall before the wing
- Is necessary to balance the total pitch moment of the plane
- When ice is present stabilizer may stall & induce a vertical dive

Yaw:
• Vertical fin could stall if fin AOA is too great
• Full rudder deflection limited as IAS increases as a full rudder deflection could cause an excessive load

Roll control:
• Ailerons:
- Form drag increases when aileron deflected upwards
- Changing wing camber & two wings producing different lift values resulting in a moment around the longitudinal axis
- Rolling out: Lowered aileron creates more drag as the AOA of the wing being raised is greater as the rollout is started
- Rolling with ailerons & spoilers, right turn: Right spoiler & aileron up, left spoiler not moved & left aileron down
- Altitude increases = rate of roll increases
• Spoliers:
- Assists ailerons
- Upper wing surface devices & deflection can be symmetrical or asymmetrical
- Spoiler deflection downward on up going wing & upward on the down going wing
- Operated asymmetrically for roll control
• Outboard ailerons:
- Locked out during cruise (deactivated after flaps/slats retracted or above a certain speed)
- Typically used when flaps are extended, in low speed flight only
• Inboard ailerons:
- & roll spoilers are used during cruise
- Reduce wing twist at high speed
• Frise ailerons:
- Leading edge protrudes below wing when aileron is raised but not above it when lowered
- Reduces adverse yaw
• Adverse yaw:
- Tendency to yaw in the opposite direction of turn mainly due to difference in induced drag on each wing
- Caused by decreased induce drag on the lowered wing & increased induced drag on the raised wing
- Compensated by differential aileron deflection
- Rudder cross coupling: Rudder deflected to roll direction
• Differential aileron:
- Decreased deflection of down going aileron
- Reduce drag on upgoing wing
- Equalises drag on the left & right aileron
• Turbulent gusts: Up going wing experiences an increase in AOA
• Yaw causes roll:
- Yawing left causes roll to the left & vice versa
- Yawing motion generated by rudder deflection causes a speed increase of the outer wing which increases the lift on
that wing so that the aeroplane starts to roll in the same direction of yaw

Means to reduce control forces:

• Aerodynamic force on a control surface: Increases as speed increases
• Aerodynamic balance:
Purpose: Reduce load required to move the control
1) An internal balance:
- Leading edge of aileron in a box inside trailing edge, vented to atmosphere with a seal between wing & control surface
2) Horn balance:
- Decrease stick forces
- Inset hinge, sets the hinge line back and any mass ahead of hinge will deflect oppositely
- Gives assistance to the pilot to move the controls, leading edge of control surface potruding out
- Prevents over balance resulting from excess balance at high speeds
- Hinge cannot be too far back as it might cause overbalance, CP moves fwd
• Balance tabs:
- Moves opposite of control surfaces & same direction as trim tabs
• Anti-balance tabs:
- Moves in the same direction as control surfaces & increases control effectiveness
• Servo tabs:
- Position undetermined during taxiing
- Control surface moved by aerodynamic forces, servo tabs moved directly by pilot
- Tab is always opposite direction to control surface
- Rudder servo tabs moves as rudder pedals are moved
- Used in case of manual reversion of fully powered flight controls
- External locks: Prevent movement of control surfaces but not control wheel or servo tabs
- Elevator jams: Pitch control reverses direction
• Artificial feel system:
- Main input: IAS
- Inputs: Pitot & static pressure
- Required with fully powered flight controls
• Spring tabs:
- Reduces pilots effort to move the controls against high air loads
- At high IAS it behaves like a servo tab
• Stick forces:
- Determined by elevator deflection & dynamic pressure
• Power assisted controls:
- A part of the aerodynamic forces is still felt on the column
• Mass balance:
- Avoids flutter of control surface
- There is a need for mass balancing on fully hydraulic powered flight controls
- Weights located in front of hinge line

Trimming:
• Trim tabs:
- Purpose: To reduce continuous stick force, a servo tab only reduces stick force
- Reduces hinge moment & reduces control surface efficiency
- Do not necessarily decrease manoeuvring stick forces
- Reduces or cancels control forces
- Stick position stability never changes
- Not required on fully hydraulic powered flight controls
- Only directly affected by trim wheel, not the control column/control surface
- To zero loads on control column
- Remains in line with elevator when it is neutral
- Remains fixed for all control surface movements unless when using trim wheel
- Neutral position on control column changes (Speed decreases neutral position moves aft)
- Cause more drag than THS
- Elevator trim more sensitive to flutter
- Trim wheel moves forward = nose down trim
- Speed
• Increase: Tailplane should create more negative lift, AOA lowered & elevator down(nose down) & trim tab up
• Reduce: Tailplane should create more downforce, AOA raised & elevator up(nose up) & trim tab down
- Cockpit trim indicator: Elevator up, trim tab down = Indicator shows nose up
- Pitch authority in a direction (nose down/up) is reduced in the corresponding direction the aircraft is trimmed
- Jammed trim tab: Trim tab will act as a small elevator & respond oppositely, trying to decrease nose up tendency will
increase it
• Movable stabilizer/trimmable horizontal stabilizer(THS):
- Advantages:
• It is a more powerful means of trimming, more power to generate tail loads for power assisted controls
• Enables a larger CG range
• Stabilizer trim more suitable for jet transport because of their large speed range
• Able to compensate larger changes in pitching moments
• When trimmed for 0 elevator stick force, it creates less drag
• Less supceptible to control flutter
- Disadvantages:
• Effect of stabilizer trim runaway is more serious than trim tab runaway
• Jammed stabilizer causes more control difficulty
- Jammed at high IAS: Higher than normal landing speed, use lower flaps settings
- Airplane with forward CG: Stabiliser leading edge lower (More negative lift, giving nose up moment on tail)
- Airplane with aft CG: Stabiliser leading edge higher (Less negative lift, giving nose down moment on tail)
- Take-off:
• CG max fwd, THS max nose down = Rotation requires extra stick force
• CG max aft, THS max nose down = Rotation normal
• CG max fwd, THS max nose up = Rotation normal
• CG max aft, THS max nose up = Early nose wheel raising takes place
- For power assisted controls: Position of elevator depends on position of flaps, slats & CG(Main factor)
- For fully operated hydraulic controls: Position of elevator deflection = 0
- Neutral position on control column does not change for fully powered controls
- Variable incidenct tailplane: Trimmed by changing the angle of incidence of the entire tailplane
Operating limitations:
• Wing flutter:
- It is a destructive vibration that must be damped out within the flight envelope
- A rapid oscillation of control surface in flight
- Cyclic deformation generated by aerodynamic , inertial & elastic loads on the wing
- A divergent oscillatory motion of a control surface by interaction of aerodynamic, inertia forces & stiffness
- Caused by combination of bending & torsion of the wing structure
- Prevented by locating mass in front of torsion axis of wing
- Prevented by ensuring the wing CG is ahead of the torsional axis
- Prevented by mas balancing
- Reduced by mounting engines ahead of wing
- Excessive free play/backlash (Clearance/tolerance) decrease flutter speed
- Aeroelastic coupling affects flutter characteristics
- IAS increase flutter risk increases
- Resistance to flutter increases as wing stiffness increases
• Aileron reversal:
- Twisting of the wing above reversal speed
- Wing twisting & reducing incidence when the aileron is lowered
- The down going aileron increasing the semi-span AOA beyond the critical
• Limiting speeds:
- V MO (Max operating speed):
• CS-25 aeroplane speed that may not be deliberately exceeded in any phase of flight, unless higher speed is
authorized for flight test/training operations
• Climbing at V MO might exceed M MO
• V MO should not be greater than V C
- M MO can be exceeded in flight because maintaining a constant IAS requires an increase in TAS
- V FE : Above this speed flap movement prevented by flap load relied system
- V RA : Recommended turbulence penetration speed (Below structural limit speeds & above stall speeds determined by
load factor graphs)
- V A (Maximum design manouevring speed):
• Above it, elevator deflection could cause structural damage/permanent deformation
• Depends on aeroplane mass & pressure altitude
• Speed at which aeroplane stalls at the manoeuvring limit load factor at MTOW
• V A >= V s x √(limit load factor) *May not be less equates to symbols (>=)
• V A >= V s x √(2.5)
• V A(NEW) = V A(OLD) x √(New weight ÷ old weight)
• Determined by manouevring limit load factor

Limit load factor

Manouevring envelope: Ultimate load factor

• Exceeding ultimate load factor = Structural failure Positive CLMAX

• Manouvre load diagram:
- Stall speed:
• Reaches a point V S load factor = +1
• Originates from Speed = 0 & load factor = 0
• Speed = V A , Load factor = limit load factor
- V B : Design speed for maximum gust intensity
- V C : Design cruise speed, strength requirements during cruise
- V D : Design dive speed (Most limiting speed)
Category Load factor
Large/transport aircraft -1 to 2.5g (2.0 flaps)
Normal -1.52 to 3.8g
Utility -1.76 to 4.4g
Acrobatic -3 to 6g
Negative CLMAX
Gust envelope:
• Gust limit load factor:
- Load factor created when aircraft penetrates horizontal/vertical gusts
- Higher than manouevring limit load factor as gusts affects a small part of aircraft
• Manouevring limit load factor: Design gust value
- Load factor created by turning/pulling pushing aircraft
- Lower than gust limit load factor as it affects entire aircraft
• Gust load factor:
CLMAX
- Increase with upward gusts
- Increase with wing area increase
- Increase with EAS increase
- Increase with slope of lift vs AOA increase
- Increase with mass decrease
- Increase with altitude decrease
- Increase with wing loading decrease
- Higher on high aspect ratio aircraft
• Flaps extension reduces stall speed but will reduce margins to structural limitations
• Swept wings least sensitive to turbulence
• When AOA is constant, √Load factor = New airspeed ÷ old airspeed
• Load factor = C LNEW ÷ C LOLD
• √n = V NEW ÷ V OLD
• Gust load diagram:
- B – C – D : 66 – 50 – 25
- All lines originate from 0 speed & 1G gust load factor
• Gust stall questions:
1. Check if gust will make the airplane stall:
- V S1 = V S0 x √n
- If gust load factor < normal flight load factor it won’t stall
2. Calculate new load factor
- New speed ÷ old speed = (new n - 1) ÷ (old n - 1)

Propellers:
• Propeller efficiency =
- Thrust power ÷ shaft power
- Power available(Thrust x TAS) ÷ shaft power(Torque x RPM)
- Power output ÷ power output
• Propeller blade twist: Varying of blade angle from root to tip of a propeller blade
• Propeller blade twisted root to tip: To maintain constant AOA along whole length of the blade
• Propeller reference section: 75%
• Helix angle: Blade pitch/angle – blade AOA
• Geometric pitch: Theoretical distance prop moves forward in one revolution at 0 AOA
• Effective pitch: Actual distance a propeller advances in one revolution
• Propeller slip = Geometric pitch – effective pitch
• Thrust: Component of aerodynamic force parallel to rotational axis
• Propeller torque: Forces caused by airflow on propeller
• RPM lever forward during takeoff:
- Finer pitch for maximum power
- More drag, L/D decrease & ROD increase
• Icing:
- Reduces propeller efficiency by 20%
- Increase blade drag & reduce blade lift
- Occurs at low RPM
- Occurs at thicker sections first (root)
- Wing icing more critical than prop icing
• Cruise/coarse fixed pitch propellers:
- Larger/coarser pitch compared to climb propeller
- Greater geometric pitch compared to climb propeller
- Less efficient during take-off & climb, more efficient in cruise
• Propeller runaway (overspeed): First action is to close throttle
• Blade AOA may become negative during high speed idle descent(Increasing TAS & decreasing RPM)
• Constant speed propellers:
- Operate at a higher propeller efficiency over a wider speed range than a fixed pitch propeller
- Reduces fuel consumption
- Small blade angle/significant blade twist: Fine pitch
- Large blade angle/little blade twist: Coarse pitch
- Pitch angle alters slightly in medium horizontal turbulence
• Aerodynamic load: Bends tip forward
 Centrifugal load: Bends tip backward
• Windmilling:
- Produce drag instead of thrust, greatest drag condition
- Drag higher than feathered propeller
- Drag higher than non-rotating propeller
- Pitch decrease, drag increase & ROD increase
- Pitch increase, drag decrease & ROD decrease
• Feathered:
- Minimum drag on propeller, less drag than windmilling
- Compared to windmilling, feathered improves handling of multi engine airplane with one engine inoperative
o
- Blade angle approximately 90
• Limitation on number of blades:
- Loss of efficiency of one blade if it follows to the path of the preceding blade too close
- Due to decreased propeller efficiency
• Area ratio:
- Area of all propeller blades to the circular surface
- Solidity: ratio of total frontal area of all blades to frontal area of propeller disc
• Number of blades increase:
- Power absorption increase
- Efficiency decrease
- Noise reduces
- Solidity of the propeller increases
• Mean chord/camber increase:
- Power absorption increase
- Efficency decrease
• Tip speed increase to supersonic:
- Noise increase
- Efficiency decrease

Propeller effects:
• Gyroiscopic effect:
- Most noticeable during low speed flight & high RPM
- Increase with RPM increase
- Induced by pitching & yawing
• Torque effect:
- Highest during low speed & max engine power
- Produces roll about longitudinal axis
• Assymetric blade effect(P-factor):
- Inclination of propeller axis to the relative airflow
- Cause left yaw on clockwise rotating propellers
- Increases when angle between propeller axis & airflow increases
- Increases when engine power increases
• Slipstream effect:
- Countered by placing fin as far as possible from propeller
- Produces yaw about vertical axis
• Counter rotating propellers: 2 engines, one spinning clockwise & one anti-clockwise cancels out torque & gyroscopic effects
• Contra rotating propellers: 2 blades on one engine, one spinning clockwise & one anticlockwise cancels out torque &
gyroscopic effects
• Airplanes fitted with propellers have more roll tendency after engine failure compared to jet engines
• Tail wheel aircraft have a gyroscopic effect induced when taking off (Due to pitching up) when tailwheel is airborne
• Left engine is the critical engine as left engine failure creates more yaw moments
Forces acting on an aeroplane:
• General:
o
- Forces of lift & drag are normal(90 ) & parallel to the relative airflow
- Weight is parallel to gravitational force g
- All four forces act through CG
- Steady = not accelerated, sum of forces = 0
- y = flight path angle, angle between speed vector & horizontal plane
- ɸ = bank angle
2
- 1kt = 0.5144m/s
• Straight & level flight:
- Drag = Thrust & lift = weight
- Opposing forces are equal
• Straight steady climb:
- Lift = Wcosy
- Thrust = Drag + Wsiny(Weight)
- Up forces = down forces
- Thrust greater than drag because it must also balance a component of weight
- Lift less than weight because weight is compensated by the thrust
- Altitude increase
• Power available decreases, causing gamma to decrease
• AOA increases as density decreases
• IAS decreases as power decreases & also due to drag as AOA increases
• Straight steady descent:
- Lift = Wcosy
- Thrust = Drag – Wsiny(weight)
- Thrust less than drag
- Lift less than weight because it only needs to balance weight component perpendicular to flight path
- Sum of forward forces equal to sum of all rearward forces
• Gliding:
- Max gliding distance: Induced drag = parasite drag, determined by L/D ratio
- Max gliding distance achecived when using gliding speed that gives the lowest drag
- Max gliding duration: Decreased mass increases duration, does not affect distance
- Max glide range: Depends on wind & L/D ratio which varies with AOA
• Headwind: Glide range reduced
• Tailwind: Glide range increased
- Glide ratio = L/D ratio = Distance over ground ÷ height loss [Feet to NM: ÷ 6080]
- Airspeed for minimum glide angle(V MD )[Min drag] is greater than minimum sink rate (V MP )[Min power]
- Descent angle: Fixed value for a certain combination of configuration & AOA
• Min glide angle: Achieved at (C L /C D ) MAX Climb gradient:
- [Thrust per engine (N) x number of engines] ÷ [Mass(kg) x gravitational force(g)] – [Drag ÷ lift] x 100%
- Climb gradient = tany(Climb angle)
• Rate one turn:
o
- 3 /s
- (g x tan ɸ) ÷ V (Inversely proportional to speed)
- Flying at ROT,
• Airspeed decrease = Bank angle & radius decrease
• Airspeed increase = Bank angle & radius increase
• Coordinated turns:
2 2
- Radius = [TAS(m/s)] ÷ [9.81m/s (gravitational force, g) x tan ɸ (Bank angle)]
- Time to fly a circle: Circumference(2πr) ÷ TAS(m/s)
- To deduce lift from coordinated turns:
1. Load factor = L ÷ W, also load factor in a turn = 1 ÷ cos ɸ
2. L/W = 1/cos ɸ (bank angle)
3. L = Weight(N) ÷ cos ɸ
- 2 aircraft at different speeds, same mass & bank angle
2
• Turn radius greater with faster aircraft [Radius = TAS ÷ (g x tan ɸ)]
• ROT greater with slower aircraft [ROT = 1/TAS]
1 2
• Lift coefficient greater with slower aircraft [According to lift formula (L = / 2 pV C L ) To remain with same lift, if
V is lower C L must be higher]
- To maintain altitude & airspeed: AOA & thrust must be increased
- To maintain altitude & thrust: Speed will decrease
- Mass does not affect turn radius with constant bank & TAS, but determines whether it will stall or not at said speed
BUT minimum possible radius of turn is smaller with smaller airplanes
 - For a specific angle of bank & airspeed, ROT & radius does not vary
- It is when the longitudinal axis of the aeroplane at the CG is tangential to the flight path
- AOA has to be increased to compensate for the reduction of the vertical component of lift
- The horizontal component of lift makes the aircraft turn
- Lift force provides centripetal force & a force that opposes the weight of the aircraft
- Thrust = drag because there is equilibrium of forces along the direction of flight
o
- Centripetal force = weight at 45 bank
o
• <45 : Centripetal force < weight
o
• >45 : Centripetal force > weight
• Load factor:
- General:
• Load factor = L ÷ W
• Steady level flight load factor = 1
- In a turn:
• Load factor = 1 ÷ cos ɸ
• Does not change with a constant bank angle
- During climb & descent
• Load factor < 1
• Load factor = L ÷ W = Wcosy (Lift) ÷ W = cosy(climb angle)

Assymetric thrust:
• General:
- Directional controllability with one engine inoperative adversely affected by:
(Due to increased thrust from other engine = more adverse yaw moments to counteract)
• Low temperature
• Aft CG location
• Low altitude
- Directional controllability with one engine inoperative favourably affected by:
(Due to decreased thrust from other engine = less adverse yaw moments to counteract)
• High temperature
• Fwd CG location
• High altitude
• V MC :
- Minimum control speed with criticial engine inoperative
- Decrease with increasing altitude & temperature
• V MCA :
- Minimum control speed in the take-off configuration
- Equilibrium about normal axis provided by rudder
- Equilibrium along lateral axis requires banking/sideslipping
o
- Determined by using max thrust & 5 bank angle
o
- Not more than 5 : Although more bank reduces V MCA , too much bank may lead to fin stall
- Bank angle reduces, V MCA increases
o
- V MCA does not reduce at any(keyword) bank angle above 5
- Depends on airport density altitude & location of engine on the aeroplane (Aft, fuselage or wing)
- Directional control ensured when:
• Maximum take-off thrust was set & maintained on the remaining engines
• Sudden engine failure occurs on most critical engine
• Not with flaps, gear or in/out of ground effect
• V MCG :
- Minimum control speed on the ground
- Speed at which directional control can be maintained at engine failure on take-off using primary flying controls
- Determined without nose wheel steering (Incase of slippery runways or nosewheel ineffectiveness)
- Determined with CG fully aft. When CG is aft, there is shorter arm from CG to tailplane causing less manouvrability
- Determined using directional control/rudder only (No lateral)
- Determined by airport elevation & temperature
- Lateral deviation should not be more than 30ft
- Decreases with increasing field elevation & temperature. Because engine thrust decreases
- Crosswind not taken into account
• V MCL :
- Minimum control speed in the landing/approach configuration
- Limited by the available maximum roll rate, limited by maximum aileron deflection
- It is trimmed for approach with all engines operating
- NOT for take-off
• Critical engine:
- Engine failure with left crosswind, left outboard engine failure causes greatest problem
- Engine failure with right crosswind, right outboard engine failure causes greatest problem
- Engine failure: Bank & input rudder towards live engine, banking raises dead engine wing higher increasing it’s lift, &
rudder to counteract yawing moment caused by live engine
Polar diagram: